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THE WATEBBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 

Malleable Nickel Alloys. 

Malleable nickel and its alloys, such as german-silver. 
nickel-silver, cupro-nickel, Monel-metal, etc., furnish some 
of the most difficult problems to be encountered in the rolling 
mill business. Every precaution possible must be exercised 
in the melting, pouring, rolling and annealing operations. 

The metal itself is extremely sensitive to chemical as well 
as mechanical conditions and unless care is exercised in every 
possible direction disappointment in the final results is 
inevitable. In many instances, even when the greatest care 
is taken with the melting and pouring operations, the result- 
ing castings will be found to be defective. These results in 
general may be charged to changes in atmospheric condi- 
tions, as well as to some unintentional oversight in the 
melting or pouring operations. 

Only the best grade of metals should be used for the 
manufacture of nickel and its alloys which are to be used 
for rolling mill purposes. The copper used may be either 
lake or electrolytic but in no instance should that grade of 
copper known as "casting copper" be employed. A tough, 
long-grained grade of spelter practically free from lead or 
other impurities will be found to give satisfactory results. 

The nickel should be free from carbon and its iron content 
held to a minimum point. Some melters prefer one grade 
of nickel and some another, but as the cost of all brands is 
practically the same and as they are all used by one manu- 
facturer or another for practically the same purposes, it is 
just as well to let the melter have the brand he prefers and 
let it go at that; otherwise any defects that may be found 
in the castings will be laid up against the grade of nickel 
the melter was compelled to use. Personally I have obtained 
excellent results by using a good grade of button, grain or 



THE WATEIUU'KV BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLE. IBLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 2 

cube nickel. J think, however, thai trouble occurring in the 
manufacture! of the nickel alloys is more often caused by 
some difficulty developed during the actual melting of the 

metals rather than by any slight impurities which the metals 
themselves may contain. 

Impurities in the metals of which the malleable nickel 
alloys are made usually have a tendency to increase the 
hardness of the alloy and in this manner impair its malleable 
and ductile properties. The effect of some of the more 
common impurities met with are as follows: 

ALl'MINTM — Aluminum, except in rare ami excep- 
tional instances, should never he added to nickel or its alloys 
which are to he used for rolling mill purposes for if this is 
done the surface of the finished metal will he full of line 
spills and have a streaky appearance. The addition of alu- 
minum, even in the amount of a fraction of a per cent, has 
the effect of thinning the metal up and making it flow more 
freely. What it really does is to form a protective coating- 
over the 1 surface of the molten metal which protects the 
metal from coming into contact with the air. When the 
metal is poured from the crucible into the mold this coating 
protects the stream of metal underneath it from oxidization 
but at the same time the protective coating runs into the 
mold along with the metal and owing to the rapid chilling 
of the metal it becomes imprisoned therein and causes the 
whole structure of the casting to become intermingled with 
,1 line dross. It is this line dross which becomes elongated 
during the process of manufacture of the sheet or wire that 
causes the defects to be seen on the surface of the finished 
material. There are .some of the nickel alloys which have a 
considerable amount of aluminum in their make-up but 



THE WATERBTJRY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 3 

these alloys are used for some special purpose, such as high 
electrical resistance metal, for instance, and must be consid- 
ered hi a class by themselves. 

ANTIMONY- Antimony, even in very small amounts, 
will cause nickel and its alloys to become hard and brittle 
and it is impossible to roll them as the}' will break to pieces 
while passing through the rolls. It generally finds its way 
into the mixture through carelessness in handling scrap, as 
antimony is used in the manufacture of numerous sand- 
casting alloys, and if for any reason scrap is being employed 
in the rolling mill casting shop, extreme care should be 
taken in its selection. 

ARSENIC- Arsenic, is often found as an impurity in 
certain grades of both copper and nickel. If the amount of 
arsenic present is not too large no great harm will be done 
and perhaps some benefit may be derived from its presence, 
but if the arsenic is present in amounts greater than one 
tenth of one per cent trouble may be expected. An over- 
dose of arsenic will cause the metal to be brittle and break 
up during the rolling operation, and if by chance the metal 
should happen to stand the rolling operation the liabilities of 
the metal fire-cracking during the annealing operation are 
greatly increased owing to the influence of the arsenic. 

If a small quantity of metallic arsenic is added to nickel 
alloys, which are free from arsenic, just previous to their 
being poured, it will cause the metal to run more freely and 
give to it a somewhat whiter color. The amount of metallic 
arsenic to be added to the molten metal should not be any 
more than can be heaped upon the surface of a five cent 
piece perl Ob pounds of metal. Too much is worse than 
none' at all. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE jVICKEL ALLOYS, conHmud page I 

The arsenic should be added to the molten metal before 
it is removed from the melting furnace as its tunics are pois- 
onous and affect the health of the foundrymen. It' the men 
should by any chance inhale any considerable amount of the 
arsenic fumes a splitting headache followed by stomach sick- 
ness will result. As soon any illness which is thought to 
he due to arsenic fumes is noticed, immediate steps should 
he taken to cause vomiting. 

Alloys containing arsenic tarnish more readily than those 
that are free from it. When used as an addition to the 
mixture the metallic form of arsenic should be used and not 
the white powder such as is obtained in drug stoics. 

A mixture composed of copper, /inc. manganese and 
arsenic crops up every few years as a cheap substitute for 
ucrman-silver. the arsenic is added to bleach the copper 
white and the manganese is used to toughen up the mixture 
enough to overcome the brittleness caused by the excessive 
amount of arsenic. Alloys of this nature are entirely 
unsatisfactory from a practical view-point and should he 
classified as freaks. 

IRON - Iron, is generally found as an impurity in most 
grades of nickel as well as in many brands of spelter but 
the amount of iron so found is generally so small that its 
influence on the majority of the nicked alloys need not be 
considered. Some of the german-silver rolling mill alloys 
contain iron in. varying amounts up to one and one-half 
per cent. When iron is added intentionally to the alloy the 
grade should be carefully considered; 1 have obtained ex- 
cellent results by Using the scrap from the horse-shoe nails 
made by the Capewell people in Hartford. The iron has a 
tendency to give german-silver a somewhat whiter color as 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 5 

well as to increase its hardness to a certain extent and 
german-silver which is to be used for deep drawing or 
spinning purposes should have the iron content kept down 
as low as possible. Fifteen or sixteen per cent gennan-silver 
containing from one half to three quarters of one per cent 
of iron will compare favorably in color with eighteen per 
cent german-silver which is free from iron. In alloys which 
are to be used for springs, knife blanks, knife bolsters, cutlery 
ware, and similar articles where a good stiff metal is required 
iron is intentionally added to the alloy. If too large a quan- 
tity of iron is introduced into the mixture, part of it will 
segregate during the cooling of the casting and form small 
nuclles which of course makes an objectionable feature of 
the alloy. 

LEAD - Lead unless added intentionally should never 
be present in the nickel alloys as it causes the metal to be 
short grained and difficult to roll or draw, and the metal is 
susceptible to firecracking during the annealing operation. 
When intentionally added to the mixture lead may be used 
in quantities up to one per cent with safety but if more 
than this amount is used extreme caution will have to be 
exercised to prevent the bars from breaking up in the rolls 
or from firecracking while being annealed. 

The leaded alloys of german-silver like those of brass 
and bronze are used for purposes where it is necessary to 
perform turning, milling or drilling operations upon the 
articles manufactured from them, such as plumbers' fittings 
where it is necessary to cut a thread; rods which are to be 
turned up into various shapes; flat stock from which keys 
and similar articles are to be made. In alloying with lead, 
care must be taken to see that it is pure and under no 



TIIK WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continual page 6 

circumstances should lead be used which is in the least 1 > 1 1 
contaminated with even traces of antimony. 

When adding the lead to the mixture the metal should 
be cooled down to as low a temperature as is permissible, 

for if the lead is added while the metal is too hot. it will 
oxidize into fine black Hakes which form a mechanical mix- 
ture with the metal and cause numerous small black pin 
holes to appeal* in the structure of the metal. Take especial 
pains to always stir a leaded mixture thoroughly before 
pouring into the mold and pour at as low a heat as is per- 
missible in order to obtain a perfect casting. 

MAGNESIUM — Magnesium, the metal, has at various 
times been recommended as a deoxidizing agent for nickel 
and its alloys but my experience with its use while being 
limited, has not proved at all satisfactory. The castings 
came spongy and full of holes and had more the appearance 
of a honey-comb than they did of solid metal. Others have 
experienced the same difficulty in using magnesium as a 
deoxidizing agent. \ have heard of instances where good 
results have been obtained by the use of magnesium but my 
opinion is that it is much too fine a tool for the average 
caster to use. 

MANGANESE — Manganese, as a metal, is used in 
various combinations with nickel for making alloys having a 
high electrical resistance power and it is also used in smaller 
quantities as a deoxidizing medium for the production of 
pure nickel as well as being used for the same purpose in 
the manufacture of the nicked alloys. 

When used as a deoxidizing agent for the nickel alloys, 
it is now customary to make use of the manganese in the 
form of a copper-manganese alloy: this alloy may be of 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 7 

varying proportions, but the one most often found in com- 
merce contains 70 per cent of copper and 30 per cent of 
manganese. Care should be taken to select a brand which 
is guaranteed to be free from carbon, as carbon is a decided 
detriment to both nickel and its alloys. Some of the copper- 
manganese alloys are manufactured from ferro-manganese 
and contain a certain amount of iron ; in order to obtain the 
best results nothing but a copper-manganese alloy practi- 
cally free from impurities should be used. 

Manganese melts at a higher temperature than either 
copper or nickel and care should be taken to see that the 
metal is hot enough to thoroughly absorb it. The manga- 
nese may be added to the mixture at the time the nickel is 
put into the crucible or just previous to pouring the metal; 
either way is good but I think I have obtained the most 
satisfactory results by adding the manganese along with the 
nickel and let it work up with the molten metal. Again, in 
making alloys high in nickel the use of the stirring rod should 
be avoided as much as possible. Solid castings are hard to 
obtain if the metal has been stirred too much. Adding the 
manganese to the mixture along with the nickel gives it a 
chance to mix thoroughly without being stirred; however, 
the mixture should be given a thorough stirring just previ- 
ous to being poured. 

The manganese has a tendency to soften the metal and 
increases the amount of reduction it may be given between 
annealings, it also absorbs any sulphur or oxygen which 
may have become combined with the molten metal. Care 
must be taken not to add an overdose of manganese to the 
metal especially if it is to be used for rolling mill purposes, 
for if this is done the finished metal will very likely show 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued f>agi 8 

streaks and slivers upon Us surface. About three or four 
ouuees of the copper-manganese alloy are added for each 
LOO pounds of metal. This amount may be varied more or 
less according to conditions which arise and which must be 
me! and solved by practice and experience. 

SILVER -Silver, is sometimes used as an addition to 
the nickel alloys but there is nothing gained by its use if the 
articles to be manufactured from it are to be plated as in 
the case of german silver flat ware etc.. these alloys will 
plate just as well without the silver in the mixture. There 
are some alloys made which contain from l(j percent to 20 
percent of nickel and approximately 2 percent of silver, 
i>ut \\msv alloys are used as a base metal, that is to say. they 
are not plated after being'finished up into the manufactured 
article. In some instances an alloy containingas high as 25 
percent of silver is. hut alloys of this nature are exceptional 
and cannot he considered as commercial nickel alloys. 

Silver has a tendency to slightly increase the hardness 
of the nickel alloys hut not very much so. and there is no 
objection, outside of the expense involved, to its use as an 
addition to the mixture of the nickel alloys. 

TIN — Tin, except in viwc instances, should never be 
used as an addition to the nickel alloys which are to be used 
for rolling mill purposes, as it causes the metal to become 
hard and brittle and causes a yellowish cast to its color. 
Tin is an expensive metal and no direct benefits are gained 
by its addition to the nickel alloys. An alloy of nickel and 
tii: may he readily made by first melting the tin to a red 
heal and then adding the nickel to it in small pieces. The tin 
will absorb the nickel readily generating heat at the same 
time. The resulting allov will be as brittle as glass and mav 



THE WATERBURY HOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL. ALLOYS, continued page 9 

be readi)y broken up by striking it with a haminei-. 

The regulation brass foundry pit melting furnace is the 

style almost universally used tor melting the nickel alloys. 
A erueible ranging from a Xo. 40 to a No. 70 is used, per- 
haps a Xo. 00 being the favorite. The capacity o1 a erueible 
is about 3 pounds to a number, thus, a Xo. 00 will hold 
approximately 180 pounds of metal. 

A good grade of egg coal or coke or a combination of 
both may be used for fuel and about two pounds of metal 
may be melted with one pound of fuel. Can 4 should be 
taken to obtain a grade of fuel that is practically free from 
sulphur. (Lehigh Valley coal and a 72 hour ( "onnelsville 
coke). 

The quantity of "metal to be melted and the amount of 
fuel to be used for melting it. should be so regulated that 
the fuel will be consumed by the time the metal is ready 
for pouring. If too much fuel is used, it will not all be eon- 
sumed by the time the crucible is ready to be removed from 
the furnace and in order to attach the tongs to i he crucible 
the unconsumed fuel will have to be broken u.p and when 
this is done the rough treatment accorded to the crucible 
greatly impairs its life. 

Some manufacturers use a crucible which is lined with 
lire-clay and others paint the inside of the crucible over 
with fire-clay, but the great majority of the manufacturers 
use the regular commercial graphite crucible. The idea of 
the clay lining is that it prevents the nickel from coming in 
contact with the sides of the crucible and in this manner 
absorbing carbon, but the clay linings crack and flake off. 
and the final results are not much different in one case than 
another. 



THE WATKKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 10 

The nickel alloys are niched down in practically the 
same manner as brass and nothing special is required ex- 
cept a vri'v strong draft As a reducing Hanie is required 
for the successful melting of metals, earemusl betaken to 
sec thai the melting fuiiVaces are practically air tight except 
where the openings are provided Por the draft. It isdesirable 
when melting metals to keep all of the free air or oxygen 
possible away From the meltiug chamber. A furnace which 
is chuck full offlame gives better results than is the case 
when the liases within the furnace are rare. The flames have 
a tendency to push themselves out of any crack or opening 
in the melting chain her. thus preventing the entrance of aiiy 
outside air. whereas, if the atmosphere within the melting 
chamber is rare, it has a tendency to stick the outside air 
through any openings or cracks and in this manner the oxy- 
gen obtains access to the molten metal. The inlet and outlet 
openings tor the draft holes should he so const nicted that 
Ihimcs within the chamber may he controlled. 

Experiments are continually being carried out with spe- 
cially constructed furnaces to do away with the use of the 
crucible in melting. Fuel oil appears to he the favorite menus 
of obtaining heat for these furnaces and their construction 
of reverbratorv design. These furnaces are meeting with 
more or less success hut nothing has yet been found which 
works as successfully as the old fashioned pit furnace and 
crucible. 

Klectric melting furnaces are now being placed on the 
market and \\>v some purposes give good satisfaction. The 
eost of their np-koep is one objection, and their virtues lor 
melting the copper alloys are as yet problematical. 

One reason whv it is so hard to arcl away from the old 



THE WATER1MJEY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued^ page // 

style of using the pit furnace and crucible for melting the 
copper alloys is that this method has been the practice since 
the inception of the brass business, and in order to break 
a wav from this custom, the whole structure and reasoning 
power of the 5 average inciter's mind must be reconstructed. 
When the cost in dollars and cents of this educational period 
is taken into consideration by the average-manufacturer, he 
reverts back to the old ideas of melting, leaving the solution 
of the problem to posterity. 

The nickel is placed in the bottom of the crucible along 
with some fine lump charcoal, and the smaller pieces of 
copper and scrap constituting the mixture, after which a 
little more charcoal is added, on top of which the larger 
pieces of copper are placed, care being taken to see that 
they are not wedged or jammed in the crucible for if this 
happens, the metals, under the influence of the heat, will 
expand and crack the walls of the crucible. When the metal 
reaches a red heat and is about ready to start to melt, four 
or five lumps of borax about the size of an English walnut 
are placed in the crucible. 

The metal is now allowed to remain undisturbed until 
it has reached the proper temperature for adding the zinc, 
which may be determined by allowing the stirring rod to 
rest upon the bottom of the crucible and noting the intensity 
of the vibrations that are felt through it by the hand. 

The vibrations must be very distinct; the idea is the same 
as would be the case of a kettle of boiling water on the 
kitchen stove, when the water first begins to boil, if a, stick 
be rested upon its bottom but slight vibrations will be felt 
but as the water becomes hotter the strength of the vibra- 
tions increase until finally it arrives at a jumping heat: so 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 12 

wiih ilit* nickel alloy, when it arrives at the jumping beat, 
add the zinc It' the metal is too hot the zinc will enter the 
mixture with explosive force and blow the metal out of the 
crucible; when this happens cool the metal down a little by 
the addition of small pieces of scrap until it arrives at the 
right temperature for receiving the zinc. After the addition 
of the zinc the metal should be given a thorough stirring. to 
insure a proper mixture. Great care must always he taken 
to see that the nickel has nil become melted, as it has a had 
habit of floating on top of the metal, ami unless this point 
i> carefully watched, pieces of solid nickel will he found in 
the casting, 

Whenever scrap is used in addition to the new metals 
comprising the mixture, care must he taken to let it melt 
down into the crucible by means of its own gravity, that is 
to say. it should not he forced down into the crucible by 
meansof pushing with the stirring rod, or in a similar man- 
ner, for if this is done the resulting casting will he very apt 
to he pourous and contain blow-holes. The bigher the per- 
centage of nickel in the scrap the greater the caution should 
be used as regards to forcing the scrap down into. the crucible. 

When melting scrap, such as german silver for instance, 
it is advisable, when circumstances will permit, to use that 
containing the higher percentages o\' nickel, and by the addi- 
tion of copper and zinc reduce it down to a lower grade 
alloy. The scrap from the lower grade of alloys should by 
the addition of nickel, and in some instances hoth nickel 
and copper, be converted into alloys containing a higher 
percentage of nickel. By using the scrap up in this manner 
a better grade of castings will he obtained than would he 

the case were the scrap to he melted without changing the 



THE WATEIiBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued frage 13 

percentage of nickel in the alloy. However, in many instan- 
ces, conditions are such that it becomes, necessary to remelt 
the seraj) for making eastings having tne same percentage 
of nickel as the scrap and when this happens there need be 
no cause to worry as uniform results may be obtained by 
using due care during the melting operation. Two or three 
ounces of cupro-manganese added to the melt will cause the 
the alloy to be more ductile and at the same time produce 
a sound casting. The exact amount of cupro-manganese to 
add to the melt in order to obtain the best results must be 
determined by individual practice as local conditions must 
always be taken into consideration. I have also obtained 
very satisfactory results by using boron-copper as a de-ox- 
idizing agent and do not hesitate to recommend it as being 
of valuable assistance in the production of sound castings 
where nickel is employed in the mixture. 

Boron-Copper has the same tendency as cupro-manganese 
to soften the metal and increase its capacity for reductions 
between annealings, the only extra caution to be taken in 
using it is to see that the metal is brought to a. high 
temperature. No fear may be had of burning the metal, as 
the hotter it becomes the better the results. 

It is not an easy proposition to obtain a good nickel 
alloy casting by melting all sera]), still, at the same time, it 
is not at all impossible, and by using due care while melting. 
a majority of the castings will be found to be satisfactory. 
It is customary with a number of the most successful manu- 
facturers of the nickel alloys, when it is necessary to make 
a melt of all scrap, to first melt carefully and pour off into 
ingots and then to re-melt the ingots and pour into castings. 
It is always much more satisfactory to make an addition of 



THE WATERBURY I'.ihiK OK ALLOYS. 



,1/ / /././-.. / RLE MCk'EL ALLOYS, continued page II 



new metals to the scrap whenever circumstances will permit. 

A good covering of charcoal should always be kept upon 
the surface of the nickel-copper alloys while they are being 
melted and a good handful of common salt may be added as 
soon as the metal starts to melt. Borax is used almost uni- 
versally as a flux for the nickel alloys and it works very 
satisfactorily for this purpose. The chief objection to borax 
is that if too much of it is used, it cuts the walls of the cruci- 
ble and in this manner gives the carbon free access to the 
nickel. The absorption of carbon by the alloy causes the 
casting to be hard and brittle and to contain numerous small 
black pinholes. By adding the borax after the metal starts 
to melt, it does not have as much time to work upon the 
crucible as is the case when it is added directly with the cold 
metal, and the combination of the molten metal and the 
borax forms a slag which seems to almost overcome the in- 
fluence of the borax to cut the walls of the crucible. One of 
the large rolling mills which has an excellent reputation tor 
the quality of its german silver uses nothing hut a good 
covering of charcoal as a flux during the melting operation. 

Some casters like to use a mixture ol'limeand fluor-spar 
as a covering for the nickel alloys. About three parts of 
lime to one of fluor-spar are mixed together by means of 
wetting down the lime and stirring in the fluor-spar in t ho 
same manner as mortar is mixed. After having been 
thoroughly mixed it is allowed to dry. after which the mass 
is broken up into lumps and used in this manner. 

A I tout two pounds of this flux per MM) pounds of metal 
is added to the crucible when the metal is being charged. 

tf at the time of skimming the llux is too thin it may 
he thickened up by the addition of more lime, audit' on 



THE WAfEHBETRY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE XICKI-:L ALLOYS, continued page 15 

the other hand, it is desired to thin the flux up a little more 
fluor-spar should be added to ft. This makes a good flux 
and is preferred by some casters to one composed of borax 
and salt. There are fluxes for sale which come already 

prepared and in most instances they will be found to give 
satisfactory results, however, the above duxes will he found 
to he simple and cheap and are in daily use by large pro- 
ducers of the nickel alloys. 

A flux should not be considered as a cure-all but more 
as a preventative, and the more simple and direct the man- 
ner iu which it is used, the more satisfactory will be the 
results obtained. 

A flux, no matter how good it may be will not produce 
good metal unless the melting operation is carried on in an 
intelligent and careful manner and experience is the best 
teacher in determining what this manner should be. It does 
not pay to experiment with too many fluxes at one time for 
by so doing confusion is apt to arise and no matter whether 
the results are good or bad. a certain doubt will make itself 
manifest as to just what caused these particular results, 

Xickel alloys which are to be used for rolling mill work 
must be poured at a high temperature in order to obtain a 
(dean, sharp and sound casting, but the temperature should 
not be ftny higher than is absolutely necessary to obtain 
these results. This temperature may be determined to a 
certain extent by noting the appearance of the metal after 
skimming. The metal should be so hot that a sort of moldy 
appearing substance forms upon its surface right behind the 
skimming bar. The correct pouring temperature may be 
determined by blowing strongly against the surface of the 
metal, if the moldy appearance shows immediately, the metal 



THE VVATEKBURY LOOK OF ALLOYS. 



MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continual page 16 



\> too hot. but if there is an instants delay before the moid 
forms, i lie pouring temperature is about right. With a little 
practice and observation the pouring temperature may be 
determined to a nicety. 

When pouring the metal into the mold it is a good idea 
to split the stream of molten metal by meaiis of holding the 
skimming bar against tin 1 edge of the crucible and in tins 
manner cause an even stream of metal to (low on each side 
of it: !>v pouring in this manner much cleaner edges will be 
obtained on the casting than would be the case if the metal 
were to he poured in a single stream. In many instances a 
strainer may be used with good results, but when this is 
done, care must he taken to see that tin 4 pouring tempera- 
ture of the metal is hot enough so that it does not chill as it 
hits the strainer. The strainer is simply a V shaped trough 
made of cast iron and having a number of holes in its bottom 
through which the molten metal escapes into the mold. 

A mixture of lire day painted upon the surface of the 
strainer will have a tendency to prevent the metal from 
(shilling. The strainer is fitted to set on top of the mold. If 
the strainer is given a coating of oil and then rubbed dv\ 
with a piece of broken crucible it will work better than with 
1 he fire clay coating. 

If iron molds are to be used for making the castings they 
should be dressed over with a good grade of oil before the 
metal is poured into them. Prime winter strained lard oil 
works the best but as this grade of oil is very expensive, it 
is often compounded with a lovyer -grade of oil. A good grade 
of whale or fish oil will give verv good results but owing to 
its rancid odor it is in a way unsatisfactory as the workmen 
objed to i he smell. The ordinary so called grade ofi mineral 



THE WATEKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continual pagr 17 

oils should never be used as a mold dressing when easting 
this grade of alloys, as they will cause the metal to boil up 
in the mold which tends to produce a defective casting, (/are 
must always be taken to see that there is no water in com- 
bination with the oil, for. when this is the case, the water 
will cause the metal to sputter and bubble as it rises in the 
mold, and when this happens, no matter what grade of oil 
is used, a defective casting will result. This difficulty may 
be overcome by setting the oil pails on top of the furnace 
covers, and in this manner they will absorb heat enough to 
drive out any water the oil may contain. In any instance 
I think it is a good practice to arrange to keep the oil hot. 
as a little prevention is a great deal more conducive to men- 
tal peacefnlness than is a great deal of cure. 

After the molds have been oiled and set up, it is custom- 
ary with some casters to put about a tablespoonful of line 
flake graphite into the. bottom of the mold before the metal 
is poured into it. this assists the metal to runup quietly and 
the resulting casting has a smoother surface and is more 
homogeneous than would otherwise be the case; others mix 
the graphite with the oil before dressing over the surface 
of the mold and still others use French or China clay in place 
of graphite. All are good practice. 

When dressing the molds over with the oil, care must be 
taken to see that all parts of the casting surface are given 
a good even coating, for if any spots are left bare it will 
give the casting a dirty surface wdierever such bare spots 
occur and it often happens that deep irregular holes will 
form in the casting when the molds are not properly oiled. 
Care must also be taken to see that the molds are not too 
hot when the oil is applied to them for if this is the case. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page to 

i he oil will burn or evaporate away before the metal is ready 
to be poured into* them and in this manner produce the 
same effect as if the molds were not properly oiled. 

After the eastings have been poured, they arc taken out 
of the molds and allowed to cool, after which they are taken 
to the alligator shears to have their gate ends cut off and 
the ends of the casting inspected for any (laws or delects 
which may be in the metal. There is a great deal of respon- 
sibility attached to this particular operation and it should 
be intrusted to a man who is fully competent to handle it. 

It is wasteful to cul away any more metal than is absolute- 
ly necessary, and it is just as important that the castings 
are cut until solid metal is reached, and a great many times 
it is necessary to display a nice amount of good judgment 
in order to tell just where to stop cutting. 

After the castings have had their ew^ls cut oil and been 
inspected, they are taken into the rolling mill to he given 
their lirst rolling operation. Some of the mills anneal their 
castings before they are given their lirst rolling, and others 
loll the metal just as it tomes from the casting shop. The 
reason for this is due partly to custom and partly to physi- 
cal conditions existing in the particular mill where tin 4 rolling 
i> to he done. If the mill is somewhat shy on its annealing 
capacity ii will probably roll the metal without lirst anneal- 
ing it. Another item often taken into consideration is that 
by rolling the metal direct from the casting shop without lirst 
annealing it. from five to ten hours in time are saved. On 
the other hand, when the metal is first annealed it is softer 
and will stand a further reduction than will be the case 
when the rolling is carried out without lirst annealing the 
castings. With some of the nickel alloys, especially those 



THE WATERBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page J9 

containing lead, it is always the bes< practice to first anneal 
the metal before rollng it. for if this is not done, the bars 
will be very apt to crack and break up as they are going 
through the rolls. 

When the eastings are ready they are taken to the break- 
ing down rolls and given the first rolling operation Consid- 
erable latitude is permissible as to tlie manner in which the 
reductions may be applied to the metal. The ideal way. of 
course, is to have a mill strong enough so that the castings 
may be given the maximum of reduction in the least number 
of [>asses through the rolls, but it often happens, especially 
in smaller mills that this method cannot be carried out ow- 
ing to lack of horse power, or of some weakness in the con- 
struction of the rolling mill itself. All that is necessary in 
either case is to reduce the metal down as far as possible 
between annealings. In the case of a properly designed 
and well equipped mill this may be done in three or four 
passes through the rolls, whereas, witli the weaker equip- 
ment it might take seven or eight passes through the rolls to 
accomplish the same amount of reduction. In either method 
providing the metal has been given the proper amount of re- 
duction between annealings, the final result will be the same. 
If the metal has not been given the proper amount of 
reduction it will fire crack during the annealing operation, 
also metal which has been so rolled that it is bowed up or 
kinky is very apt to crack during the annealing operation. 
In some instances in which a bar is pretty badly bowed 
fire cracks will make their appearance on one side of the 
bar but not on the other. If the castings are so rolled that 
they are kept flat and straight after each pass through the 
rolls and are also given the proper amount of reduction, 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS 
MA LLEA BL E ML KEL A LL Q ) S, continued-page 20 

there need he no occasion to worry about fire cracks. 

If the metal has not been properly treated in the casting- 
shop, or if it contains impurities to any great extent, such 
as carbon for instance, it will he more or less brittle, and be 
very apt to break up during the first rolling operation. 
Sometimes the hars will split down through the center and 
at other times the crack will start at the edge and run diag- 
onally towards its center. Metal which breaks up in this 
manner will he found to have a grain of a coarse and sandy 
nature, f f the nickel alloy has been made of a good grade 
of metals, and has heen properly cast and rolled and anneal- 
ed, no fear may he had of the hars breaking up during the 
rolling or of fire cracking during the annealing operation. 

Nickel alloys are rolled in much the same manner as 
hrass. and a rolling mill having rolls 20 inches in diameter. 
30 inches face. If) 1 2 inch necks and making from 11 to 18 
revolutions per minute would roll 18 percent german silver 
about as follows: 

From To Passes Anneal 



Metal 


1 % in thick 


8 A in 


i thick 


3 


1 


5 inches 


7« " 


T w 


11 


3 


1 


Wide 


7 „ " 


'. 


11 


3 


1 


Metal 


1 % " 


Vi 


11 


4 


1 


6% 


3 11 


' i« 


11 


3 


1 


Wide 


: ,. " 


% 


11 


4 


1 


Metal 


1 ' , " 


% 


11 


I 


1 


8 inches 


a 

^ 




11 


4 


1 


Wide 


: 16 - 


\ 


11 


4 


1 


Metal 


VI, •' 


', 


11 


6 


1 


1 inches 


8 , " 


■A 


I I 


5 


1 


Wide 


V, " 




a 


3 


1 




i . 




i i 


2 


1 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 21 

Whenever possible steel rolls should be employed for 
rolling the nickel alloys as they will stand a much greater 
strain without breaking, than the ordinary chilled iron rolls. 

In rolling the bars of metal from 1 / 4 inch thick down to 
the thinner gauges they are reduced from four to six gauges 
between annealings (60 to 100 per cent), the amount of the 
reduction on each pass through the rolls depending on the 
nature of the alloy and the strength and construction of the 
mill. After the metal has been rolled down so thin that 
the top and bottom rolls touch one another, it is better to 
close the rolls down tight together, aud give the metal one 
or two passes through the rolls, after which it is annealed, 
and this operation is repeated until the desired thickness lias 
been reached. The thinner gauges of german silver are as 
a rule rolled in practically the same manner as brass. 

The size and speed of the mills used for rolling german 
silver are the same as those used by the larger mills for brass. 
The following data is from two of the larger Conn, mills. 
Nickel Silver Alloys 
MILL No. 1 Diameter Face Necks E ffigSgu5 < 2£g£F 



Breaking down rolls 


20 in. 


30 in 


. 167 2 in. 


14 


Com'rc'l 


Running down rolls 


18" 


36" 


14 " 


20 


Wide 


n a a 


18" 


36" 


14 " 


25 


Narrow 


Finishing rolls 


18" 


36" 


14 " 


20 


Wide 


it ii 


18" 


36" 


14 " 


25 


Narrow 


tt a 


16" 


30" 


12 " 


45 


i i 


MILL No. 2 












Breaking down rolls 


20" 


30 " 


167v ; ' 


13 


Com'rc'l 


Running down rolls 


20" 


36" 


16%" 


22 


Wide 


a it a 


20" 


30" 


16 1 /./ 4 


22 


Narrow 


Finishing rolls 


16" 


30" 


127," 


36 


Wide 


a a 


16" 


30" 


12?A" 


60 


Narrow 



THE WATERBUKY BOOK OV ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 22 

There are some of the si miller mills which owing to their 
lack of suitable power, do nol run their running down and 

finishing rolls at as high a speed as the above mills, but the 

breaking down rolls as a rule all run at about the same iiuiu- 
ber of re vol i it ions per minute, still, at the same time. I know 
of one mill which makes a specialty of polling the nickel 
alloys, whose breaking down rolls are IS in. in diameter, 
30 in. lace. 14 ill. necks, and they make 2'2 revolutions per 
minute. It is not always advisable to try to run the rolls 
at too high a speed, as there is nothing to be' gained by run- 
ning the rolls faster than the men can feed the bars of metal 
into them. Also high speed will cause more trouble from 
the necks heating and the metal breaking up as it passes 
through the rolls: this will he found especially tine of the 
wider widths and thinner guages. The time lost through 
the above difficulties arising, will more than oll'set any gain 
which may he obtained by speeding up the rolls. 

Wide gernian silver sheets are rolled in much the same 
manner as sign brass, but especial care must be exercised 
in the annealing operations. The sheets should be placed 
in the annealing furnace in packs, and as the top sheet of 
the pack reaches the desired temperature it is drawn out of 
the furnace bv moans of a pair of tongs in the hands of a 
workman, and when the second sheet is annealed, it is with- 
drawn in the same manner and so on until the whole pack 
has been annealed. If the whole pack of sheets were to be 
placed in the ri Riffle at one time on an iron pan and then all 
of the sheets were removed at one time bv means of draw- 
ing out the pan. the t emperat lire throughout the sheets 

would not be even. Thai is to say. the sheets would 

be a trifle harder in souk 4 places than in others, and when 



THE WATEKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 23 

sheets in this condition are passed through the rolls it will 
be found impossible to make them lay hat and the work will 
be spoilt. Some of the manufacturers of german silver 
sheets use a hydraulic stretching machine to flatten the 
sheets after they have received their final rolling operation. 
The ends of the sheets are clamped into the jaws of the 
stretching machine. The machine is then started up caus- 
ing the jaws to extend further apart and in this manner 
pulling the sheet perfectly fiat. Only sheets of a soft or No. 1 
hard temper may be flattened in this manner for if the sheet 
is too hard, it will spring back tone'arly its original shkpe 
after the pull on the stretching machine is released. Manu- 
facturers having machines of this description included in 
their equipment are able to somewhat slight their rolling 
operation and in this manner produce a greater number of 
finished sheets in a day. Care must always be taken to see 
that the sheets are well cleaned before they are passed 
through the rolls. 

When annealing the nickel alloys the temperature oft he 
annealing oven should be kept at from 1250 degrees to 1400 
degrees Fahrenheit and the metal should be left in the oven 
until it has attained a good even clear red color all the way 
through. A pyroscope will be found to be of valuable assis- 
tance in the annealing operation and where conditions are 
always the same it may be relied upon for uniform results, 
but in ordinary rolling mill work where the thickness, shape 
and quality of the metal is constantly changing the pyro- 
scope and good common sense must be used in conjunction 
with one another. Annealed german silver having 18 per 
cent nickel content should show a schleroscope reading of 
24 to 26 and alloys containing more or less than this per 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued fxtge ft 

eentage of nickel will show readings over or under these 
figures according to the nature of the alloy. 

After the metal has been thoroughly annealed it should 
he withdrawn from the annealing oven and allowed to cool 
off gradually. Under no circumstances should any water be 
put upon the metal in order to hasten its cooling Tor if this 
is done, it will cause it to crack: these craeks may be very 
line and not make their presence known until the bars are 
given the next rolling operation and unless it is known from 
whence they originated the trouble mighl be blamed upon 
the roller. I have known of instances where german silver 
has been taken out of the annealing furnace and left to cool 
oil' near an open door through which a draught was blowing 
and some of the bars, upon the next rolling operation, dev- 
eloped cracks similar to those produced by cooling off the 
metal with water. 

The annealing of the metal plays an important part as 
to the ease with which the metal can he cleaned. If the 
lire is smoky or if the complete combustion of the fuel is not 
thoroughly taken care of, a deposit of uneonsumed earbon, 
which may be likened to hardened lampblack, forms upon 
the surface of the metal. This carbon oilers a sjtrong 

resistance to the action of the cleaning solution and difficulty 
is experienced in removing it from the surface of the metal. 

Also if the lire in the annealing furnace is too rare, the 
outside aii" is sucked into the annealing chamber and causes 
a heavy oxide or scale to form upon the surface of the metal. 
This scale i^ very tenacious, and oilers resistance to the 
action of the cleaning solution. The lire should he so regu- 
lated that it exerts an expanding or pushing force against 
the doors ol the annealing furnace and in this manner forces 



THE WATEKI5UUY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE XICKEL ALLOYS, cdnMhueti fiag&25 

the outside air away from the annealing chamber, rather 
than to have a tendency to draw it in. 

After the gernian silver liars have been rolled down to 
3 4 in. thick, and annealed, they are taken to the overhauling 
machines to have their surfaces scraped and inspected for 
any iiaws which they may contain. 

Should any such Haws be found they are chipped out by 
means of an ordinary hammer and a cold chisel about %'iiY. 
wide having a slightly rounded cutting edge. After chiseling 
care must be taken to see that any sharp edges left in the 
metal by the chisel are eased off. for if this is not done these 
sharp edges will lap over when the metal is given its next 
rolling, and this will cause a sliver or seal) to appear upon 
the surface of the finished bars. Some of the mills do not 
overhaul their german silver until it has been rolled down 
to 7 /ie in. thick. All things being considered. I think that 
this is the best practice as it gives about double the surface 
to overhaul, which means a closer inspection of the metal. 

The difference in the results of the final inspection of the 
finished metal will more than pay for the extra work. 

With some mills it is customary to use the regular brass 
cleaning solution, composed of eight parts, of water to one 
part of eommcr-sulphuric acid, but they do not pickle their 
brass and german silver in the same tubs, having a set of tubs 
for the use of the gernian silver exclusively. If steam pipes 
are rim through the solution, heating it to about 150 to 175 
degrees Fahrenheit, better results will be obtained. Live 
steam should not be blown directly into the pickling solution 
as by so doing it will weaken it. Other mills use a cleaning 
solution composed of nitric acid and water in addition to 
the sulphuric bath. This method cleans the metal nicely, 



THE WATERBURT HOOK OF ALLOYS, 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 26 

but is objectionable because of the fumes arising from the 

action of the nitric acid upon the metal. These fumes float 
around throughout the building and settle upon the machin- 
ery and metals in stock, and has a decided tendency to cor- 
rode them as well as to rot any belting in the building. 

The best present day practice is as follows: — The metal 
is first pickled in the regular sulphuric acid bath, after which 
it is placed in a tank holding a solution composed of water, 
bi-chromate of either soda or potash, and. sulphuric acid. It 
may be made up as follows: Take '20 gallons of water and 
add to it 4 quarts (liquid measure) of the bi-chromate crys 
tals, and then add gradually, stirring at the same time, sul- 
phuric acid until the bi-chromate crystals have all become 
dissolved; if too much sulphuric acid is added to the mix- 
ture it will cause the surface of the metal to turn a dark 
color, also, it the metal is left in the solution too long it 
will lose its bright surface and turn dark and its action will 
eat into the surface of the metal. The metal should be left 
in the solution just long enough to clean up and then taken 
out and rinsed in clear cold running water. Warm or hot 
water have a tendency to turn the metal a dark color. 
Or. the dip may be made up as follows: 

Water 333 Gallons 

Sulphuric- Acid 400 pounds 

Bi-chromate crystals 40 

Add If) to 20 pounds of bi-chromate daily, use one week 
and then make up a new solution. 

The bi-chromate dip is not very durable, and it cannot 
be renewed with any amount of success, it has to be fre- 
quently changed, and made up new ecali time. 1 have heard 
that some manufacturers mix a quantity of the bi-chromate 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 27 

crystals directly with their sulphuric acid pickling solution 
and obtain satisfactory results. Personally I have never 
had much luck with this method. 

The bi-chromate solution should be mixed in a lead or 
porcelain tank, as it attacks wood quite rapidly and in this 
manner it not only becomes quite dirty but loses its strength 
rapidly as well. 

A little experimenting with this dip will prove its worth 
and uniform results may be obtained. Its action seems to 
be to remove the scale, and a slight amount of metallic 
copper from the surface of the metal, leaving the zinc and 
nickel behind; this causes the metal to have a whiter color 
than would otherwise be the case, and the lower grade 
alloys treated in this manner have the appearance of con- 
taining a higher percentage of nickel than is really the case. 

In the foregoing, the term Malleable Nickel Alloys 
relates more particularly to the various mixtures com- 
monly known as German Silver, Nickel Silver, Maillechort, 
Argentan, Packfong, etc. 



HE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 



MALLE J /.7./-" XIC-k'ML ALLOYS, continued ftage . 

Low Grade German Silver 

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 

Copper 65.33 65.00 64:00 62.00 153.38 63.00 71.25 

Zinc 32.66 32.00 32t)0 33.00 31.66 32,00 2S.7J) 

Nickel 2.00 3.00 4.oo 5.00 5.00 5.00 5.00 

8 9 lo 11 

Copper 63. oo 62.50 61.75 61.33 

Zinc 31,00 30.50 30.;75 30.66 

Nickel 0.00 7.00 7,50 8.00 

German silver containing nickel in amounts of less than 
LOpereenl and which is rolled into sheet or drawn into 
wire, is known to the trade as a low grade german silver 
alloy. A Hoys oft his description do not contain nickel in suffi- 
cient lv high quantities to produce a white color and a mix- 
ture containing 5 percent of nickel has a brassy appearance. 

This grade of german silver is used principally by the 
manufacturing jewelers and similar trades. The color of the 
metal is not of so much importance as is the Tact that it 
can he brazed and soldered, due to its high melting point, 
a greal deal more easily than brass. The metal is also some 
what stiller and has a closer grain than brass, it holds its 
shape and temper better, and makes a \rv\ satisfactory 
metal for this da>s of work. 

The above allovs are all used lor ornamental purposes 
with the exception of No. 7 which is known ;is 5 per cent 
platers silver and No. 5 which is used for making some 
cheap jewelry alloys. 

The usual practice is carried out in melting these alloys 
and the method of rolling and drawing them into wire is 
the same as practiced in the manufacture of common brass. 



THE WATEHBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 29 

German Silver Key Stock 





1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


Copper 


55.50 


60.50 


66.00 


58.00 


60.00 


60.00 


65.00 


Zinc 


35.25 


30.50 


24.00 


31.00 


27.00 


26.00 


22.00 


Nickel 


8.00 


8.00 


8.00 


10.00 


12.00 


12.00 


12.00 


Lead 


1.25 


1.00 


1.50 


1.00 


1.00 


2.00 


1.00 


Iron 


.00 


.00 


.50 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 




8 


9 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


Copper 


65.00 


57.00 


60.00 


66.00 


58.50 


59.00 


58.50 


Zinc 


21.50 


28.00 


25.00 


18.00 


25.00 


25.00 


24.00 


Nickel 


12.00 


14.00 


14.00 


14.00 


15.00 


15.00 


16.00 


Lead 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 


2.00 


1.50 


1.00 


1.50 


Iron 


.50 
15 


.00 
16 


.00 
17 


.00 


.00 


.00 


.00 


Copper 


59.00 


61,00 


66.00 










Zinc 


24.00 


20.00 


15.00 










Nickel 


16.00 


18.00 


18.00 










Lead 


1.00 


1.00 


1.00 










Iron 


.00 


.00 


.00 











German silver key stock, as the name implies, is used 
for making keys for locks of the Yale and similar patterns. 

This metal must be made of a mixture which will ma- 
chine and cut easily and at the same time be strong and tough 
enough to stand the abuse to which such keys are subjected, 
and it also must be a metal which is not easily tarnished. 
The addition of a little lead to the ordinary german silver 
mixture makes an alloy which answers the requirements 
admirably. Nickel alloys are very susceptible to the influ- 
ence of lead and in amounts approximating one per cent it 
will produce free cutting qualities. The addition of lead to 



L6 

a it 1 1 



THE WATERBURY HOOK OF ALLOW 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page SO 

German Silveb Key Stock 

to the german silver alloys makes them difficult to roll or 
draw, and great care must be taken when reducing and an- 
nealing the metal. All rules relating to the manufacture of 
german silver must be applied to its leaded alloys with more 
caution than ever, if such a thing be possible. 

A bar of key stock cast »'>' 4 in. wide and l 3 sin. thick 
would he rolled as follows: 

First anneal and then roll to ia / 16 in. and anneal 

I 1 9 / It 

L6 
a ti a 5 / l< t< 

/16 

V, 

.102 

'• ".004 

II II II Q4Q 

The temper of the finished metal is generally 2V 2 or 3 
numbers hard and the thickness of the finished stock is de- 
pendent upon the size and form of the lock which the key 
is to serve. 

In casting, the same fluxes are \^^\ as for german silver 
and the question of the hest flux to use is generally discre- 
tionary with the caster. As before explained proper melting 
is of much more importance than the choice of a flux. The 
addition of cupro-manganese or boron-copper as a deoxi- 
dizing agent is perfectly admissible in making the leaded 
german silver alloys, 

Brazing Bolder 
1 2 :*> 4 

Copper 35.00 10.00 L5.00 40.00 
Zinc 57.00 50.00 45.00 40.00 
Nickel 8.00 10.00 L0.00 20.00 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 3 J 

Brazing Solder, continued 

Number 3 is the mixture found in most general use. It has 
a white color and is made and used in the same manner as 
brass solder. (See article 4, page 53) It fuses at a much 
lower temperature than german silver and is used consider- 
ably for brazing this material, but for the finer grades of 
of work, silver solder is much preferable and is found in 
general use for the best class of work. The subject of 

Silver Solder will be taken up at some future date under 
a separate heading. 

Benedict Metal 
Copper 85.00 80.00 

Nickel 15.00 20.00 

30%Cupro-Manganese 3 ounces 3 ounces 

Benedict-nickel was first put on the market by the 
Benedict & Burnham Branch of the American Brass Co., in 
the form of seamless tubing. It is cast in a solid billet and 
formed into a tube by the Mannesmann process while red hot. 
It is used quite extensively in the plumbers trade for the 
better class of lavatory fittings where a white metal is de- 
sired which will stand the constant polishing which such 
articles receive. This metal has also met with more or less 
success for use as condenser tubing in steamships but as it 
is quite expensive and its economy for this purpose as yet 
problematical, it has not come into general use for this pur- 
pose. The metal is quite soft in its annealed condition and 
is hardened and tempered in the usual manner by cold 
working. The same precautions are to be observed in the 
method of handling this metal as with german silver. 



THE WATEBBURY ROOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE XICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page 32 

( Vpro-Xickel Bullet Jackets 

Copper 85.00 80.00 

Nickel 15.00 20.00 

30# Oupro-Manganese 5 ounces 5 ounces 
Cupro-iiickel or bullet-jacket metal is a non-corrosive 

alloy which is rolled to about \/ m in. thick and is then formed 
up by means of a punch and die into a covering for the part 
of a lead bullet which is exposed. This jacket covers every 
part of the lead bullet except the bottom which is on the 
inside of the cartridge shell. This covering prevents the 
lead from fouling the rifle barrel gives the bullet a longer 
range and greater power of penetration, and is not so apt 
to cause blood poisoning in a wound as would be the case 
were brass or copper used for the bullet covering. When 
properly made the metal is soft and pliable and easily 
worked into shape. 

The proper melting and mixing of the alloy forms the 
critical point in the manufacture of cupro-nickel and unless 
this operation is carried out in an intelligent manner trouble 
may be expected. The inclination of the molten metal to 
combine with oxygen is so great that unless means are tak- 
en to prevent this combination the metal will be brittle and 
crack up during the rolling operation. Metal in this condi- 
tion is commonly known as "burnt" metal, but the term is 
misleading as the difficulty is not caused by overheating, 
but from its absorption of ox}*gen due to improper methods 
of melting. The mixture most often specified for. is the one 
containing 15 percent of nickel, but in many instances an 
order will call for the 20 per cent of nickel alloy, which is 
the most difficult of the two to work. 

Either Lake or electrolytic copper will be found suitable 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, confaiiied-page 33 
OuPRO-NlCKEL 



for making cupro-nickel, 



wmmmmmmmmmmmm/mmmmmmam. Care should be taken to 



select a grade of nickel that is practically free from iron, 
arsenic, carbon or cobalt. 

It is customary when melting cupro-nickel to use the old 
style foundry or pit furnace. This style of furnace will be 
found in all rolling mill casting shops, and providing the 
draft is strong enough, no trouble will be experienced in 
melting the metal. A very hot fire is necessary in order 
to melt the nickel. 

The grade of fuel to be used should be carefully selected 
and a good quality of Lehigh valley egg coal, or a 72 hour 
Connellsville coke, free from sulphur, or a combination of 
both will be found suitable for the purpose. Whenever 

possible the amount of fuel to be used should be so calcula- 
ted that it will be about consumed at the time the metal 
has reached its pouring temperature but this is not always 
possible, as in some instances in order to bring the heat out 
it is necessary to raise the crucibles up and re-coal the fire, 
this however, is not good practice and should be avoided 
whenever circumstances will permit. Ordinarily a bottom 
of about 6 in. deep of coal is placed in the furnace for the 
crucible to rest on. The space between the outside of the 
crucible and the walls of the furnace should be about 3 in. 
and the top of the crucible should be about 2 in. or 3 in. 
below the opening of the flue. When melting, the fuel should 
be packed around the crucible flush with its top. Either a 
square or a round furnace may be used, the ultimate result 
being the same in either case but care must always be taken 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 34 
&JPRO-NICKEL 

to 80 regulate the fuel that it will be about all consumed 

around the sides of the crucible at the time the metal is 
ready to be taken from the furnace, this is to insure an easy 
adjustment of the tongs to the crucible. If the fuel is not 
all consumed the tongs will have to be forced onto the cru- 
cible which injures it and shortens its life. 

The melting should be carried on by use of natural draft 
whenever possible, and in case a forced draft is necessary, 
it is advisable to place a sucker of some sort in the stack 
rather than to put a blower underneath the fire, the reasons 
(br this have previously been explained. The amount of air 
allowed to enter the melting chamber should be so regulated 
that it is all consumed before it has a chance to obtain ac- 
cess to the metal in the crucible otherwise it will increase 
the possibilities of the metal becoming "burnt" or oxidized. 

A number 60 crucible holding approximately 180 lbs. 
of metal will be found to work satisfactorily, as this is about 
as heavy a charge of cupro-nickel as should be melted at 
one time, smaller amounts may be melted in a satisfactory 
manner but the best results are not obtained when the 
charge is much over 180 pounds. The life of a crucible in 
which the cupro-nickel is melted will average from three to 
five heats: if the crucible appears to be in good shape after 
running five heats, it is customary to use it for melting brass 
until it fails. The reason for this is that tin' crucibles will 
not. as a rule, stand more than five heats owing to the high 
heat required in melting cupro-nickel, but a few more heats 
may he obtained from the same crucible in melting brass, 
which docs not require such a high melting temperature. 

The casters ofcupro-nickel differ slightly in their methods 



THE WATEKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLEYS, continued- page 35 
CuPRO-NlCKEL 

of melting clown and mixing the alloy but these differences 
are mostly in the form of personal traits, and the following, 
with slight variations, may be accepted as general practice. 

About a quart of bfoklen charcoal is placed in the bottom 
of the crucible, and the nickel, with about double its weight 
of small pieces of copper, is placed on top of it. The heavy 
scrap is next added to the crucible and the ingots of copper 
are placed in the furnace in order that they may become 
red hot by the time the finer metal in the crucible starts to 
melt. A few lumps of borax are thrown into the crucible 
and the whole is given a covering of charcoal. If any more 
scrap is to be added to the mixture it is placed in the cruci- 
ble after the first charge has started to melt. It is not con- 
sidered good practice to add scrap to the mixture in amounts 
of over 25 or 30 per cent of the total melt for if this is done 
the liabilities of an imperfect casting are greatly increased. 

It is customary to add only the heavy scrap to the mix- 
ture. The light scrap is melted down separately and poured 
into ingots which are afterward added to the charge in the 
regular manner. When melting down the light scrap just 
as much care must be taken with the operation as though 
new metals were being melted, otherwise the ingots will be 
pourous and if a pourous ingot is added to the regular melt 
its poor quality will very likely be reflected in the resulting 
casting. When adding scrap to the molten metal be very 
careful not to force it down into the crucible by means of the 
tongs or otherwise for whenever this is done it has a ten- 
dency to cause blow holes in the casting. The best way is 
to place the scrap in the crucible and let it work itself clown 
into the molten metal by means of its own gravity. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 36 

OuPRO-NlCKEfc 

The readiness with which cupro-nickel absorbs oxygen, 
while in the molten condition, makes it necessary to pro- 
vide some means whereby this condition may be overcome 
and metallic manganese has been found to answer this pur- 
pose in a satisfactory manner. When used as a de-oxidiz- 
ing agent for the nickel alloys the manganese is usually 
added to the mixture in the form of a copper manganese 
alloy which is generally composed of 30 percent manganese 
and TO per cent of popper, This alloy is made by mixing the 
oxide of manganese with copper and melting them in an 
electric furnace. This alloy can be bought in open market 
;.t a slight advance over the price of copper. 

Manganese when used as a de-oxidizing agent for cupro- 
nickel must be handled with skill, as if an overdose is added 
to the mixture, the surface of the finished metal will very 
likely contain numerous line spills or slivers. If one ounce 
of the cupro-mangane.se alloy is added to the mixture for 
every three pounds of nickel therein, satisfactory results 
should be obtained. Anyway this can always be taken as a 
starting point and the amount may then be varied to suit 
cadi individual, case. Some casters figure on using ' 4 of one 
per cent of manganese to the entire melt, whereas others, 
figure on using one per cent of manganese figuring on the 
nickel content alone. Take your choice of the three methods. 

Manganese also has a strong affinity for sulphur as well 
as oxygen and combines with it to form a slag, which rises 
to the to]) of the molten metal from whence it may be easily 
skimmed off. 

Owing to tlic high beat at which cupro-nickel is melted 
it is customary to use graphite stirring and skimming bars 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 31 
CuPRO-NlCKEL 

in place of the iron ones which are generally used when mel- 
ting brass. The consumers of cupro-nickel are sometimes 
a little "fussy' 7 about anything over a ''trace'' of iron being- 
present in the metal, thus the caution about using the 
graphite stirrers and skimming bars. 

When skimming off the top of the metal preparatory to 
its being poured into the mold, care should be taken to see 
that all the charcoal is NOT REMOVED from the surface 
of the molten metal, just enough of the fine charcoal should 
be retained to prevent the surface of the molten metal from 
coming into contact with the air. This little "trick" is of 
the greatest importance and should not be forgotten. 

After the crucible has been brought to the mold and is 
ready for pouring the charcoal is pushed back and a piece 
of pine wood about four or five inches square and one inch 
thick is placed upon the surface of the metal. The block of 
- wood prevents the charcoal from flowing into the mold along 
with the metal, and the flame arising from the burning wood 
acts as a blanket to prevent the air from coming into con- 
tact with the surface of the molten metal. The block of 
wood is held in position by means of resting the skimming 
bar on the edge of the crucible and letting the block of wood 
rest against it. 

The metal is poured into the regulation cast iron box 
mold such as is used for all brass and german silver rolling- 
mill castings and as a rule the bars are cast from 1 inch to 
P/4 inch in thickness and about 4% inches wide. I do not 
think it is advisable to try to cast the bars any less than 
1 inch thick nor more than l l / 4 mch thick. A bar which is 
cast too thin chills and sets rapidly in the mold thus impris- 



THE WATF.RBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page & 

GuPRO-NlOKEL 

oning anv dirt or gases which may he in the metal and in 
this manner render it unfit for use. On the other hand, if 
the easting is too thick, owing to the excessive shrinkage of 
this allov. it will '"pipe" while cooling and in this manner 
will cause a defective casting. Also the thicker the casting 
the more rolling it will take to bring it down to the finished 
thickness. 

Care must always be taken to see that the surface of the 
molds are given a thorough brushing and cleaning before 
each pouring and a small bellows should be at hand for 
blowing the line dust out of the corners of the mold, for if 
this tine dust is allowed to remain in the mold it will cause 
the casting to have a dirty end. 

Before pouring the metal into the molds, they should 
have their casting surfaces coated all oyer with a good 
dressing of pure lard oil or a good fatty fish oil. The fish 
oil will answer the purpose but is objectionable on account 
of its rancid odor. It is customary with the more 

successful casters of cupro-nickel to mix China or French 
day along with a little graphite in the oil, the same being 
applied to the surface of the mold by means of a brush. 

A handful of clay to two quarts of oil will be found suffici- 
ent. A tablespoonful of flake graphite dropped into the 
bottom of the mold will assist the metal to rise quietly and 
make a sounder casting. 

The metal should not be removed from the furnace for 
pouring until it has reached a dazzling white heat and a few 
moments before removing from the furnace the manganese- 
copper flux should be introduced to the mixture, and the 
whole given a thorough, stirring with a graphite stirring bar. 



THE WATEKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-- page 39 
CuPRO-XlCKEL 

Especial pains should be taken to see that the nickel has 
all 'become melted, as often times small pieces have a ten- 
dency to float on top of the molten metal. 

The proper temperature for pouring the metal is best 
determined by practice. The tests for the pouring temper- 
ature are generally made by pushing the stirring rod clown 
through the molten metal until it rests on the bottom of 
the crucible. If the metal is "right" a distinct "kick" will 
be felt through the rod but care must taken to see that the 
metal is not boiling or jumping for if it is in this condition 
blow-holes will appear in the casting. 

Another method in practice is to push the charcoal back 
from the surface of the molten metal and note the appear- 
ance of its surface, which should be very bright and mirror 
like. This placid and mirror like surface is perhaps the 
most reliable test but it takes quite considerable practice 
and skill to accurately determine this point. 

Just before being removed from the melting furnace the 
metal should be given a thorough stirring with a sort of 
upward swinging motion of the stirring bar as this method 
of stirring has a tendency to bring any foreign material 
which may have become entangled in the molten metal, to 
its surface. Metal which has been poured at too low a 
temperature will be pourous, as will also be the case with 
metal which has been poured at too high a temperature. 

In the case of the Ioav temperature the pourous spots will 
be black whereas in the case of too high a pouring tempera- 
ture the pourous places will be bright and shiny. A peculiar- 
ity about cupro-nickel is that if it has not been properly 
melted and is also poured a little too cold, it will, after 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOWS, continued page W 

CuTRO-XlCKEL 

having been poured into the mold, .start to walk out again 
of its own accord. This procedure is very disheartening 
to the caster. 

The metal should be poured in a steady stream and just 
fast enough sows to bring the dirt to the top of the casting, 
but it should not be poured so fast that the metal jumps or 
bubbles in the mold. If the stream of metal is split by means 
of holding the graphite skimming bar or a stick of hard 
wood against the lip of the crucible, it will assist in produc- 
ing a perfect casting but in the case of casting narrow bars, 
it is optional with the caster whether he splits the stream 
or not. 

After the bars of cupro-nickel have been cast, they are 
taken to the alligator shears to have their gate ends cut off 
and inspected for solid metal. It is sometimes necessary 
to take three or four cuts before solid metal is reached, and 
in some instances it becomes necessary to cut up the whole 
bar, but it is better to do this than it is to spend time and 
labor in the mill, working on defective metal which will, 
in all probability, be rejected upon its final inspection. 

After t lie bars of cupro-nickel have been cut and inspec- 
ted they may or may not be annealed before the first or 
breaking down rolling. It is customary with most of the 
Larger mills having sufficient annealing facilities to anneal 
them first but this is not absolutely necessary. 

The method of rolling cupro-nickel is practically the 
same as for other brass rolling mill alloys. It does not have 
to be annealed as often as brass, and as a rule it is custom- 
ary to roll it dbwn to about ' B ofan inch in thickness before 
annealififir. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 41 
CuPRO-NlCKEL 

If the molds have been properly taken care of. and the 
melting and pouring operations have been successfully car- 
ried out it will not be necessary to give the metal much of 
an overhauling. Probably the safest way is to break clown 
the metal to about 5 / 8 or 1 / 2 inch in thickness and give it a 
light overhauling, after which the balance of the rolling may 
be given to it. 

Cupro-nickel, as a rule, finishes from .035 to .040 of an 
inch in thickness, and the reductions given to the metal on 
the finishing rolls are light. This is done in order to even 
up the gauge of the metal as the specifications in most 
instances are very rigid. The finished material must have 
a nice smooth surface in order to insure its proper working 
in the drawing operation. The finishing rolls must be kept 
smooth and clean and felt wipers should be attached to them 
in such a manner as to automatically remove from their 
surface any small pieces of metal which may have become 
attached to them. The rolls are polished by means of grind- 
ing them with a hard maple stick coated over with oil and 
fine emery. 

Cupro-nickel is annealed at a temperature of from 1250 to 
1350 degrees Fahrenheit and the metal is kept in the anneal- 
ing oven until it has attained a light cherry red throughout 
its whole mass, after which the dampers are closed and the 
metal is allowed to "soak" in the oven for 15 or 20 minutes 
after which the annealing operation is complete and the 
metal may be withdrawn from the oven. In the last or 
finishing annealing, the coils of metal should be loosened 
ap, so that the heat has every opportunity to distribute 
itself evenly throughout the coil. If the metal has been 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page 12 

(Ypro- Nickel 

properly annealed it will show a scler oscope reading of from 

1!) to 2,1 in hardness. 

The hot metal after it comes from the annealing jfurnace 
may be immediately cooled off by means of spraying with 
water or it may be left to cool off of its own accord, both 
methods are successfully employed and it is simply a matter 
of custom and local conditions as to which is used. 

The cnpro-nickel bars should be pickled after each an- 
nealing operation in order to prevent any scale or dirt from 
being rolled into their surface. The annealing process 
causes a heavy scale to form upon the surface of the metal 
and if this scale is not removed not only is it pressed into the 
surface of the metal but it is of such a gritty nature that it 
will cut a groove in the surface of the rolls. 

The pickling is done in the ordinary sulphuric acid bath 
composed of from 8 to 10 parts of water to 1 part of sul- 
phuric acid. Plenty of good clear, running water should be 
at hand for rinsing purposes for if the acid is not all removed 
from the surface, of the bars its action upon the iron will 
also cut a groove in the rolls. A water-spray with plenty 
of force behind it makes a very satisfactory method of rins- 
ing the metal. Another method of cleaning the cupro- 
nickel bars, is to add] 3 or 4 ounces bi-chromate of potash or 
soda, to 1 gal. of the regular sulphuric acid pickling solution. 

The final or finishing pickling operation is carried out 
in conjunction with the bi-chromate dip as explained in the 
general directions tor cleaning german silver. 

Afier the finished metal has been given its linal pickling 
operation it is cleaned and dried out in the regulation brass 
mill sawdust drying out machine. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, contimced-page 43 
CuPRO-NlCKEL 

The finished bars are sheared to width either before 
or after their final annealing; the general practice is to 
shear the metal to width before it o-oes to the furnace for 
its final annealing. After all of the foregoing operations 
have been completed, the finished bars are carefully inspec- 
ted and any defects found in the metal are cut out after 
which the material is weighed up and packed ready for 
shipment. 

Carbondale Silver 

Copper 66.00 

Zinc 16.00 

Nickel 18.00 

30 7° Cupro-manganese 3 to 5 ounces 

"Carbondale" 7 Silver is made from only the best grades 
of metals and it is manufactured under the trade name of 
"Carbondale Silver.'"' It is quite soft and easily worked and 
is used for making watch cases and for articles which re- 
quire deep drawing or spinning operations as well as for 
experimental purposes. 

Colorado Silver 

Copper 57.00 

Zinc 18.00 

Nickel 25.00 

30?° Cupro-manganese 6 ounces 

"Colorado Silver" is a very white, close grained metal 
and is used principally for the best class of table ware, such 
as spoons, forks, etc. It is heavily silver plated and wears 
indefinitely. It is manufactured under the trade name of 
"Colorado Silver" or "Colorado Metal." This alloy is also 
used when drawn into wire for electrical purposes such as 
resistance wire etc. 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 



Copper 

Nickel 

Horse shoe nails 

Manganese 



MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page I! 

Constantly 
57.00 

42.00 
.50 
.50 

'"Conshii.tin" is an alloy which is used for making elec- 
trical resistance wire and had its origin in Germany. Its 
electrical specific resistance is 28. It is reasonably soft and 
pliable when annealed as the following characteristics of a 
piece of wire .039 inches in diameter will indicate. 

Tensile strength persq. in., annealed 08.700 lbs. 

Elongation in 8 in. 30.5 per cent 

Reduction in area 73.7 per cent 

Number of twists in 6 in. 206 

Cutlery Stock, Knife Stock. Bolsters, 
Shield Metal. Naubuc. 
Bolsters 



Copper 

Zinc 
Nickel 
[ron 
30* Cm 



Bolsters 


Knife 


Cutlery 


Cutlery 


63.00 


02.00 


68.00 


68.00 


21.00 


20.00 


14.25 


13.25 


10.00 


16.00 


17.00 


18.00 


.50 


1.50 


.75 


.75 


5oz. 


6 oz. 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 


Cutlery 


Cutlery 


Cutlery 


Cutlery 


60.00 


54.00 


58.00 


60.00 


20.00 


21.00 


17.00 


18.00 


18.00 


25.00 


25.00 


21.00 


1.00 


.50 


.75 


1.00 


5 oz. 


12 ox. 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 



66.00 

18.00 

15.00 

.50 

pro-manganese 5 oz. 

Knife 

Copper 6)0.00 

Zinc 20.00 

Nickel 18.00 

Iron 1.50 

:')0' ; ( Jupro-manganese Ooz. 

These alloys are all used for making high grade cutlery 
-lock for table use. The alloys containing the smaller 
amounts of iron are employed for making knife bolsters. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 45 

Cutlery Stock, etc. 

Those containing from 3 / 4 to 1 per cent of iron are used 
for making ordinary knife stock, and the alloys having the 
higher percentages of iron, which makes a very hard metal, 
are used for making knives and shields. The metal is all 
finished soft except that which is used for shields and this 
is finished from 3 to 5 numbers hard. Different combi- 
nations for special purposes can be figured from the above 
alloys but the foregoing will be found to cover most specifica- 
tions as they stand. These alloys are all very white and close 
grained and will take a high polish. 

Craig Gold 

Copper 80.00 

Zinc 10.00 

Nickel 10.00 

Craig gold has a bronze color and a very fine grain. It 
polishes up well and is used for making a select grade of 
ornamental goods as well as both flat and hollow fancy ware 
for table use. It is not a difficult metal to make but has 
more of a demand as a specialty than as a staple article of 
commerce. 







Special White Metal 


Copper 




57.00 50.00 


Zinc 




21.00 25.00 


Nickel 




22.00 25.00 


30 °!° Cn 


-Mn 


5 oz. 5 oz. 



These alloys are used principally for making the handles 
and trimmings for surgical instruments etc.,. where a very 
white and non-corrosive metal is desirable. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page P> 

Drawing, Stamping, Spinning. Wire. And 
General Utility Mixtures. 



Copper 


50.00 


00.00 


02.00 


0)5.00 




Zinc 


34.00 


30.00 


28.00 


25.00 




Nickel 


10.00 


10.00 


10.00 


10.00 




30 c /< Cu-Mn 


2 oz. 


2 oz. 


2 oz. 


2oz. 




Copper 


58.00 


59.00 


63.00 


66.00 




Zinc 


29.33 


29.00 


25.00 


22.00 




Nickel 


12.00 


12.00 


12.00 


12.00 




30* Cu-Mn 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 




Copper 


57.33 


60.00 


61.00 


64.00 




Zinc 


28.06 


26.00 


25.00 


22.00 




Nickel 


14.00 


14.00 


14.00 


14.00 




30 % Cu-Mn 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 




Copper 


56.66 


60.00 


60.75 


63.00 




Zinc 


28.33 


25.00 


24.25 


22.00 




Nickel 


15.00 


15.00 


15.00 


15.00 




30% Cu-Mn 


3oz. 


3oz. 


3oz. 


3oz. 




Copper 


56.00 


60.00 


03.00 


64.00 




Zinc 


28.00 


24.00 


21.00 


20.00 




Nickel 


1 0.00 


16.00 


10.00 


16.00 




30 % Cu-Mn 


3oz. 


3oz. 


3oz. 


3 oz. 




Copper 


59.00 


60.00 


02.00 


65.00 (very 


soft) 


Zinc 


23.00 


22.00 


20.00 


17.00 




Nickel 


18.00 


18.00 


18.00 


18.00 




30' Cu-Mn 


303. 


3oz. 


3oz. 


3oz. 





THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 47 

Drawing, Stamping, Spinning, Wire, And 
General Utility Mixtures. 



Copper 




54.00 


55.00 


57.00 


58.00 




Zinc 




28.00 


27.00 


25.00 


24.00 




Nickel 




18.00 


18.00 


18.00 


18.00 




30 % Cu 


-Mn 


4oz. 


4oz. 


4oz. 


3oz. 




Copper 




53.33 


57.00 


60.00 


62.00 


64.00 


Zinc 




26.66 


23.00 


20.00 


18.00 


16.00 


Nickel 




20.00 


20.00 


20.00 


20.00 


20.00 


30 <*> Cu- 


■Mn 


loz. 


4oz. 


4oz. 


4oz. 


4 oz. 


Copper 




53.00 


57.00 


59.00 


63.25 




Zinc 




26.00 


22.00 


20.00 


15.75 




Nickel 




21.00 


21.00 


21.00 


21.00 




30 °t° Cu- 


■Mn 


5oz. 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 




Copper 




50.00 


55.00 


57.00 


60.00 




Zinc 




25.00 


20.00 


18.00 


15.00 




Nickel 




25.00 


25.00 


25.00 


25.00 




30 * Civ 


-Mn 


6 oz. 


6 oz. 


6 oz. 


6 oz. 




Copper 




16.66 


60.00 


54.00 


57.00 


60.00 


Zinc 




23.33 


20.00 


16.00 


13.00 


10.00 


Nickel 




30.00 


30.00 


30.00 


30.00 


30.00 


30 °i° Cu- 


Mn 


8oz. 


8oz. 


8oz. 


8oz. 


8oz. 


Copper 




51.00 


50.00 


50.00 


50.00 




Zinc 




17.00 


17.00 


16.00 


15.00 




Nickel 




32.00 


33.00 


34.00 


35.00 




30 % Cu- 


■Mn 


8oz. 


8oz. 


8oz. 


8oz. 





THE WATKKIJUllY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page IS 

The foregoing alloys are all in general use for eommer- 

cial purposes, and with the exception of the quantity of 

eupro-manganese- which is taken arbitrarily- will be found 

in process oi manufacture in the different mills. 

The hardness, malleability, ductility and general work- 

. . «_ 

iug qualities of the different alloys containing certain per- 
centages of nickel, are governed by the content of copper 
in each individual alloy. Thus, in the alloys containing 10 
per cent nickel the 65-25-10 mixture is much softer than the 
o(;-:;4-10 alloy. 

The color of the metal containing a certain percentage 
of nickel is not altered to any appreciable extent by varying 
the quantity of copper and zinc therein. 

Metal which is to be used for dee]) spinning, drawing or 
stamping purposes should be selected from the alloys con- 
taining the higher percentages of copper, The same rule 
applies to wire and rod as to sheet, and when ordering 
materials it is always the better or safer plan to explain to 
the mill the purpose for which the metal is to he used. 

Mantfactumno Jewelers Wire 

Copper ('..TOO 03.00 62.90 S1.S3 60.00 50.00 

Zinc 32.00 31.00 30.50 30.66 30.00 29.00 

Nickel 5.00 6.00 7.00 8.00 10.00 12,00 



Copper 57.33 56.66 56.00 55.00 5133 53.00 50.00 

Zinc 28.66 28.33 28.00 27.00 26.66 26.00 2-7.00 

Nickel 1 1.00 15.00 10.00 18.00 20.00 21.00 2-"). 00 

These alloys are all drawn into wire of different sizes 

and tempers to be manufactured into various articles of 

jewelry such as hat pins, clasp pins, wire monograms, belt 

buckles, ladies finery, etc. The percentage of nickel in these 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page. 49 

alloys dominates their value and non-tarnishing qualities. 
Manganese, Boron. Titanium or some other de-oxidizing 
agent improves their quality. 

Watch Case Metal 
58.50 
29.50 
12.00 
1.00 
2 oz. 
Backs 
(32.00 
20.00 
18.00 
.00 
3 oz. 

The mixtures containing lead are used for parts where 
milling, turning or drilling operations are required and the 
other alloys are used for the cases and their various parts. 
The quality and value of the case is dependent upon its 
nickel content. For obvious reasons it will be seen that 
nothing but the best grade of material will answer the pur- 
pose for manufacturing watch cases. 

Shoe Archks; 
Copper 56.66 

Zinc 28.33 

Nickel 15.00 

This metal is generally finished 1 number hard in the 
finishing rolling operation so as to give it just enough temper 
to sustain the weight of the person wearing the arches 
without falling or breaking down. 



Copper 


59.00 


67,50 


Zinc 


29.50 


22,50 


Nickel 


10.00 


10.00 


Lead 


,50 


.00 


30 % Cu- 


-Mn 2 oz. 
Bezels 


2oz. 


Copper 


60.00 


55.00 


Zinc 


24.00 


27.00 


Nickel 


16.00 


18.00 


Lead 


.00 


.00 


30 % Cu 


-Mn 3 oz. 


3 oz. 



56.66 


55.00 


28.33 


28.00 


15.00 


16.00 


.00 


1.00 


2 oz. 


3 oz. - 


Albatra Metal 


66.00 


57,50 55.00 


16.00 


22,50 17.00 


18.00 


18.75 28.00 


.00 


1.25 .00 


3 oz. 


3 oz. 5 oz. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 50 

Nickel-Bronze or Nickel-Oreide 

Copper 87.00 8G.50 81.00 90.00 (Hi. 00 

Zinc 7.00 7.00 10.00 .00 .00 

Nickel 0.00 6.50 0.00 10.00 .00 

18? Scrap .00 .00 .00 .00 34.00 

The above mixtures are used mostly in making novelties 
in drawn and spun articles, such as trays, vases, teapots and 
other articles of hollow ware which are quite attractive. 
The 81-10-0 mixture has had quite a run for making cheap 
gold colored watch cases. The 90-10 alloy has a pinkish 
tint to it and is very attractive when worked up into fancy 
articles. The melting operation is carried out in the usual 
manner. The nickel bronze mixtures may be worked up 
into either sheet or wire as the case may be. 

Steam-G-uage Metal 

Copper 81.00 

Zinc 16.00 

Nickel 2.00 

This metal is used for making the ornamental parts ot 
steam recording gauges and similar articles. It has a very 
pleasing color, is very fine and close grained, and takes a 
high polish. If any german silver scrap is at hand, better 
results can he obtained by using it. for making the nickel 
content of the alloy, than where pure nickel is used. 

Nick ei, Alloy 
Copper 51.00 50.00 30 f 00 

Nickel 22.00 50.00 70.00 

30* Cu-Mn .00 l.oo LOO 

Manganese 17.00 .00 .00 

There arc instances when it is desirable to add the nickel 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 51 

to the mixture in the form of an alloy rather than to use 
the pure nickel. This is especially true in small foundries 
where there is not sufficient draft to melt the pure nickel. 

These small foundries buy the nickel alloy from some 
outside source and then add enough of it to their mix- 
ture to give the resulting alloy the desired percentage 
of nickel. The 51-22-17 alloy is not used for this purpose 
but is used a few ounces at a time as a deoxidizing agent. 

Snow Case Metal 
Copper 61.00 60.00 60.00 58.00 57.00 56.00 

Zinc 25.00 25.00 24.00 24.00 23.00 2:100 

Nickel 14.00 15.00 16.00 18.00 20.00 21.00 

30% Cu-Mn 2 oz. 2 oz. 2 oz. 4 oz. 4 oz. 5 oz. 
Show case metal must be nice and smooth, clean, very 
soft, sheared without burring, rolled straight and true to 
gauge. The flat metal is drawn through dies on a draw 
bench in order to shape it up so that it will fit the show case 
moulding and as this is a very particular operation every- 
thing must be favorable or trouble will be encountered in 
the drawing operation. Any metal having flaws upon its 
surface must be rejected for not only will it be objectionable 
to the sight but will be a menace to those who lean against 
it as they may cut themselves or tear their clothing. 

Springs For Telephones 

Copper 64.00 

Zinc 22.00 

Nickel 14.00 

This alloy is used for telephone parts and is generally 
rolled 8 to 10 numbers hard. Care must be taken not to 
overheat the metal during the annealing operations or it 



THE WATEUBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page 52 

will affect the quality of the spring. This metal if properly 
worked makes a good lively spring of great durability. 

As german silver spring metal is dependent on niechan- 
ical manipulation for the amount and quality of spring it 
contains, any of the general utility mixtures may be used for 
this purpose. The amount of reduction given to the metal 
after its final annealing determines its spring qualities. 
The alloys containing about 1 per cent of iron make an 
excellent spring and one to be recommended for ptirposes 
where a sharp bend is not required. 







S' 


rERLINE 




Copper 




08.00 


08.00 


08.00 


Zinc 




14.25 


13.25 


14.00 


Nickel 




17.00 


18.00 


18.00 


Iron 




.75 


.75 


.50 


30 * Gu 


•Mu 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 


5 oz. 



The name "Sterjine" is protected by trade mark but the 
mixture is not patented. Sterline was originated as a roll- 
ing mill alloy for the manufacture of spoons, forks, knives, 
and other varieties of flat ware and for drawing and spin- 
ning up into various articles for table use and novelties. It is 
also used for wire by the manufacturing jewelers. The alloy 
is very white and takes a high polish after which it has a 
close resemblance to the better grades of sterling ware. 

When melting use the same care and precautions as with 
all nickel silver alloys. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 53 

Spoon Stock. Fork Stock, Flat Ware, etc. 

Copper 60.00 62.00 67.38 59.00 56.66 58.00 

Zinc 30.00 28.00 28.66 27.00 28.33 27.00 

Nickel 10.00 10.00 14.00 14.00 15.00 15.00 

30^° Cu-Mn 2oz. 2oz. 2oz. 2oz. 3oz. 3oz. 

Copper 60.00 58.00 60.00 63.00 59.50 60.00 

Zinc 25.00 26.00 24.00 21.00 22.50 22.00 

Nickel 15.00 16.00 16.00 16.00 18.00 18.00 

30% Cu-Mn 3oz. 3 oz. 3oz. 3oz. 4oz. 4 oz. 

Copper 62.00 57.00 60.00 62.00 57.00 59.00 

Zinc 20.00 23.00 20.00 18.00 22.00 20.00 

Nickel 18.00 20.00 20.00 20.00 21.00 21.00 

30% Cu-Mn 4oz. 4oz. 4oz 4oz. 5oz. 5oz. 

These alloys are all in use for making the various grades 
of flat ware such as spoons, forks, berry spoons, soup ladles 
etc. The mixtures containing the higher percentages of 
copper are the softer and will stand a greater amount of 
working than will those alloys containing a higher percent- 
ages of zinc. For work that is to be heavily embossed 
always select the softer alloys. When making metal for 
this class of work it should be given a very careful inspec- 
tion at the overhauling machines and all defective bars 
ought to be scrapped, as by so doing much future worri- 
ment will be avoided. 



THE WATEKBUKY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page $4 

Hollow Ware. Sugar Bowls, Tea Pots, etc. 

Copper 64.00 67.50 61.00 64.50 60.00 63.00 

Zinc 26.00 22.50 25.00 21.50 25.00 22.00 

Nickel 10.00 10.00 14.00 14.00 15.00 15.00 

30*Cu-Mn 2oz. 2oz. 2oz. 2oz. 3oz. 3oz, 

Copper " 63.00 65.33 68.00 61.50 63XH) 65.00 

Zinc 21.00 18.66 18.00 20.50 19.00 17.00 

Nickel 16.00 16.00 16.00 18.00 18.00 18.00 

30#Cu4tn 3oz. 3oz. 3oz. 4oz. 4oz. 4oz. 

Copper ~ 60.00 62.00 64.00 59.00 61.00 63.00 

Zinc 20.00 18.00 16.00 20.00 18.00 16.00 

Nickel 20.00 20.00 20.00 21.00 21.00 21.00 

30 < 7 ( Cn-Mn 4oz. 4oz. 4oz. 5<>z. 5oz. 5oz. 

The above mixtures are all very soft and are generally 
used for that class of work which calls for difficult drawing 
or spinning operations. In the spinning and drawing opera- 
tions care must be taken to so regulate the reductions that 
the metal will be evenly worked, otherwise trouble will 
be experienced, due to the metal firecracking when it is 
annealed. 

Platinoid 

Copper 54.00 

Zinc 21.00 

Nickel 24.50 

Soft Iron .50 

30 * Cu-Mn 0oz. 

This is an original English alloy and is n.se I principally for 

drawing into wire to be used for electrical resistance work. 

It has a much higher resistance than the 18 per cent german 

silver wire. (See article on resistance metal.) It is also used 

as an imitation platinum wire for cheap jewelry. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page o"5 

Platixiite 

Nickel 46.00 

Iron 54.00 

Manganese 1.00 

This alloy has the same expansion as platinum and it is 
used for sealing the leads in electric light bulbs. It also has 
the same eo-efficient as glass and when drawn into wire it is 
made into a network and sealed in the glass in the manu- 
facture of armored glass. It is cast in a billet in a chill mold 
and rolled hot to about 3 4 in. round in diameter after which 
it is drawn through a series of chill and diamond dies to 
the required thickness. 

Jewelers or Platers Bars axd Cores 

Copper 71.25 69.00 (57.50 66.00 *64.50 63.75 

Zinc 23.75 23.00 22.50 22.00 21.50 21.25 

Nickel 5.00 8.00 10.00 12.00 14.00 15.00 

30#>Cu.Mn 2 oz. 2 oz. 2oz. 2oz. 2 oz. 2oz. 



Copper 63.00 61.80 59.20 56.25 

Zinc 21.00 20.50 10.75 18.75 

Nickel 16. no 18.00 21.00 25.00 

30^ Cu-Md 3oz. 4oz. 5oz. 6oz. 

These alloys are used for making Platers bars and cores. 

The finishing operation on this metal is general!)' done on 
a planing or milling machine and must be very accurate. 

A shell of silver or other of the rare metals is then 
sweated on to the surface of the platers bar and the whole 
is either rolled into sheet or drawn into wire: the finished 
metal having a very thin shell or coating of the more expen- 
sive metal for its surface. This is used for watch cases, 
watch chains, charms, novelties and similar articles. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued page 56 

Popes Island Metal — Howard's Non-corrosive Alloys 

First make an alloy composed of 4 parts of iron and 1 
part of metallic manganese, then make alloys as follows: 
Copper 70.00 69.00 67.50 65.00 05.00 61.00 

Zinc 15.00 14.00 13.50 14.00 13.00 13.00 

Nickel 14.00 16.00 18.50 20.00 21.00 25.00 

Alloy 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 1.00 

The above mixtures make a metal which is quite soft and 
white and non-tarnishable. It is used for a variety of pur-: 
poses but more especially for table ware. It may be stamped, 
spun or drawn with ease, and the only difficult}' encountered 
in its manufacture is the mixing of the alloy composed of 
iron and manganese. Owing to the high heat required for 
melting these metals it would perhaps be better to buy the 
alloy from outside sources. 

Wessell's Silver 



Copper 


65.00 


65.00 


51.00 


Zinc 


13.25 


12.50 


17.00 


Nickel 


19.00 


20.00 


32.00 


Silver 


2.00 


2.00 


.00 


Iron 


.25 


.50 


.00 


Manganese 


3 0/, 


3 oz. 


4 oz. 



These alloys had quite a run at one time, the claim be- 
ing made that they were non-corrosive, and while this is 
true, to a certain extent, there is not enough difference over 
the ordinary german silver alloys to pay for the difference 
in the cost of the mixture. The alloys containing silver were 
used for table ware without being silver plated but it has 
been found that a good grade of german silver given a good 
heavy plate gives much more satisfactory results. All alloys 
containing any appreciable amount of copper will tarnish 
more or less. 



THE WATERBULY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- pa g<: 57 

Invar 

Nickel 37.00 

Iron 63.00 

Manganese 1.11 

Invar is used lor the manufacture of parts of scientific 
instruments and for parts requiring the least heat expansion; 
and is also used in the construction of high grade clocks 
and watches for the compensation balances etc. It is said 
to be practically unalterable under the ordinary ranges of 
temperature, the expansion for one degree of Fahrenheit 
being only y 36 of an inch per mile. It is subjected to special 
heat treatment after being cast. 

Manganin 

Copper 82.00 82.00 83.00 

Manganese 15.50 15.00 13.00 

Nickel 2.00 2.50 4.00 

Iron .50 .50 .00 

This alloy is of German origin and is used for resistance 
metal in electrical work. It is said to have a specific resis- 
tance of 24. It is a difficult metal to make on account of its 
high manganese content. The best results are obtained by 
adding the manganese in the form of a cupro-manganese 
alloy. 

Dentists 1 Metal 

Nickel 1)8.50 

Iron 1.50 

Manganese 8 oz. 

This is a non-rusting and non-corrosive alloy and is used 
principally for drawing into heavy gauge wire from which 
are made the handles and in some instances the tools them- 
selves for dental and surgical use. 



THE WATEERUEY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 58 

U. S. Nickels or Five Cent Pieces 
Copper 75.00 

Nickel 25.00 

:>()> Cu-Mu 5oz. 

The melting and rolling of this metal is carried out in 
practically the same manner as that used for the manufacture 
of cupro-nickel. The metals entering into the alloy must of 
course be absolutely pure. In the final annealing after the 
blanks are cut out of the sheet, they are mixed with pow- 
dered charcoal and sealed in an iron retort (an iron pipe will 
answer the purpose) and annealed in this manner, they are 
then allowed to cool off before the retort is opened. This 
annealing process renders the metal very soft and makes it 
possible for the blanks to take a deep and sharp impression. 
Turning. Milling and Drilling Alloys 



Copper 




58.00 


59.00 


56.00 


58.00 


59.00 


57.00 


Zinc 




31.00 


29.50 


81.00 


29.50 


28.50 


28.50 


Nickel 




10.00 


10.00 


12.00 


12.00 


12.00 


14.00 


Lead 




1.00 


.50 


1.00 


.50 


.50 


.50 


30 * Cu 


Mm 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz. 


2oz- 


2oz. 


("opper 




56.00 


56.00 


54.50 


54.00 


57.50 


59.00 


Zinc 




28.50 


27.50 


27.00 


27.00 


22.50 


29.50 


Nickel 




15.00 


10.00 


18.00 


18.00 


18.75 


20.00 


Lead 




.50 


.51) 


.50 


1.00 


1.25 


.50 


30 * Cu- 


Mn 


3oz 


3oz. 


4oz. 


■1 oz. 


!oz. 


5oz. 



These alloys are used for both sheet and rod and will be 
found to answer the needs in most cases. If for any reason a 
metal having more freely cutting qualities is required, the al- 
loys comprising the mixtures for gennan silver key stock will 
be found to answer the requirements. Nickel alloys contain- 
ing lead should be poured at as low a temperature as is 
c insistent with obtaining a perfect casting. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 59 

Free Cutting and Drawing Alloy (very white) 

Copper 58.00 

Zinc 21.00 

Nickel 20.00 

Lead .50 

Iron .50 

30%Cu-Mn 4oz. 
This is a very hard alloy to make as it has a tendency to 
break up during the rolling operation or if this is carried out 
successfully the metal will very likely fire crack during the 
annealing operation. It is used for making non-corrosive 
parts of machinery where a strong, free cutting and draw- 
ing metal is required. 

Imitation Silver 

Copper 50.00 

Nickel 25.00 

Silver 25.00 

30 % Cu-Mii 5 oz. 

In order to impart good rolling qualities, it is necessary 
to add a small quantity of manganese. The mixture is put 
into the crucible together and melted under borax. It can 
be rolled into sheet like sterling silver. The silver imparts 
a whiteness to it. while the nickel gives it non-corrosive 
qualities. This alloy is used for making flat ware for table 
use and it is not plated but used as a base metal. There 
is no particular advantage in its use. 

Monel Metal 

Copper 75.00 

Nickel 23.50 

Iron 1.50 

Monel-metal is marketed by the Orford Copper Co., of 
New York City. It is recommended by them for the 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OE ALLOYS. 

MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 60 

manufacture of articles for which a non-corrosive metal is 
required. The alloy is made during the process of reducing 
the nickel ores found in the Sudbury region in Canada. 

r l ne alloy posseses a high tensile strength and takes a 
high polish, its color being practically the same as nickel. 
The alloy is very difficult to control during the melting op- 
eration and (*are should taken to see that an experienced 
melter who understands its peculiarities is at hand before 
accepting orders for articles to be manufactured from this 
metal. The melting operation is carried out in the same 
manner as that employed for all alloys high in nickel. 

Sash Ribbon 

Copper 72.00 

Zinc 19.00 

Nickel 5.50 

Tin 3.75 

This alloy is difficult to cast aid extreme care must be 
taken with the melting operation. The breaking down roll- 
ing operation is also a critical point in the manufacture of 
this alloy but after the rolling is once under way and the 
ecrain of the metal is wellstarted.no further difficulties will 
be experienced. The metal will be found subject to fire- 
crackinff, and caution should be taken to see that the an- 
nealing furnace is rot too hot when the metal is first drawn 
into it. The metal is finished spring temper and is used for 
making a non-rusting coil spring lor curtain fixtures etc. 
Optical Wire free turning 

Copper 54.00 54.50 

Zinc 28.00 TiM 

Nickel 18.00 18.00 

:U)"< Cu-Mn 3oz. Lead .50 

Optical wire is used for making the frames and different 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 



MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued- page 61 



parts of spectacles and eyeglasses. It is drawn into different 
sizes, gauges, and tempers, as these examples will show. 





SIZE 


TEMPER 


Eye Wire 


.042 


.003 


Hard 




.051 


.003 


73 




.058 


.003 


11 


Bridges 


.058 


.030 


11 




.068 


.010 


11 


Temples 


.066 


.030 


11 




.075 


.030 


1' 


Post Boxes 


.090 


.011 


11 


Spooled Cables 


.010 


.001 


11 


Cheap Temples 


.029 


Spring temper 


Spiral Temples 


.019 


73 


11 


Reduced Eyeglass Spring 


.050 


.010 


Hard 


Cork Guard Boxes 


.006 x 


.625 


Soft 




.006 x 


.750 


ii 


Temple Tips 


.008 x 


.650 




Temple Joints 


.015 x 


.375 


V, Hard 




.020 x 


.375 


ii 


Celluloid Guard Backs 


.024 x 


.562 


Soft 


Rimless Straps 


.028 x 


.300 


ii 




.028x 


.400 


ii 


Eyeglass End pieces, handles 


i.054x 


.400 


7 2 Hard 


End Pieces 


.060 x 


.200 


ii 


Free Turning for end pieces 


.114 


1 No. Hard 




.094 




ii 


Free Turning for screws 


.075 


.025 






.068 


.025 




Free Turning Utility 


.130 x 


.140 1 No. Hard 




.024 x 


.625 y 2 


Utility Wire 


.039 


.003 


Hard 



.040 .003 

More parts to a pair of spectacles than you thought, isn't ther 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
MALLEABLE NICKEL ALLOYS, continued-page 62 

Silver Bronze 

1, 2. 3. 4. 5. G. 7. 

Copper 80.00 80.00 64.00 01.00 68.00 04.00 60.00 

Zinc 18.00 15.00 28.00 31.00 14.00 16.00 20.00 

Manganese 2.00 5.00 8.00 8.00 18.00 20.00 20.00 

Alloys resembling the above in some form or another 
make their appearance periodically, under various fancy 
names, as a substitute for germ an silver. Their virtues are 
highly extolled and they act as a meal ticket for some fellow 
for an indefinite period, and then pass into oblivion for the 
time being. Sometimes arsenic is used as an additional 
element, its action being to bleach the copper and in this 
manner whiten the alloy somewhat. About the only prac- 
tical use for alloys of the above nature that has so far been 
found is for resistance purposes in electrical work. 

Often times ferro-manganese is used in the mixture in 
place of metallic manganese but this only complicates mat- 
ters as it adds the element of iron to the alloy. These alloys 
when succesfully cast do not equal german silver in any 
respect. Their surface is more or less spilly and even when 
a good surface is obtained it will develope a more or less 
pitted surface upon being polished. Manganese oxidizes 
rapidly and the metal is not as non-corrosive as german 
silver. When remelting the scrap from this. alloy it is very 
difficult to control the mixture as the manganese oxidizes 
rapidly and forms upon the surface of the molten metal as 
a slag. When used for rolling mill purposes these alloys are 
very difficult to overhaul and refractory in the rolls after they 
g 't down to the lighter gauges. They will ndt clean up in the 
regular sulphuric acid pickling solution and nitric acid has to 
be used. Really the most attractive point about these alloys 
as a substitute for german silver is the name. 



THE WATEltBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS, page 63 



Weight of German Silver in Ounces per Square Foot 

For the Different Gauges of Metal 

This Table is used by one of the Large Rolling Mills 

No. Ounces Equals Thousandths of No. on Brown & Sharp's 

Per Sq. Ft. an inch thick American Gauge 

1 •' .0013 48 



2 


.0025 


42 


3 


.0040 


38 


4 


.0050 


36 


5 


.0065 


33 1 /, 


6 


.0080 


32 


7 


.0095 


307a 


8 


.0110 


29 


9 


.0120 


28 


10 


.0130 


277, 


11 


.0143 


27 


12 


.0160 


26 


13 


.0175 


25 


14 


.0190 


24% 


15 


.0200 


24 


16 


.0210 


237, 


17 


.0223 


23 


18 


.0240 


227, 


19 


.0250 


22 


20 


.0270 


217-2 


21 


.0283 


21 


22 


.0295 


20% 


23 


.0305 


20% 


24 


.0320 


. 20 


25 


.0335 


197, 


26 


.0350 


19% 


27 


.0365 


19 


28 


.0380 


18% 


29 


.0390 


18% 


30 


.0400 


18 


31 


•0415 


17% 


32 


' .0430 


17% 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

Manufacture of Brass for Shrapnel Shells. 

The processes of melting and casting brass bars which are 
to be first rolled and then drawn into shrapnel shells are prac- 
tically the same as in ordinary brass casting for rolling mill 
work. Extra care and accuracy, however, must be given to 
the weighing off of charges of the different metals composing 
the mixture, as well as in the melting of these metals, for the 
resulting bars will be subject to chemical analysis as well as to 
rigid physical tests for tensile strength, elongation, elastic limit, 
yield point, etc. These tests are often very severe and the 
inspection for surface and other defects is very painstaking. 

Inspection, as a rule is made at the place of manufacture and 
are-inspection is made of the metal as it is given the successive 
drawing operations. All "rejects" due to faulty metal are 
charged back to the manufacturer of the discs, but no allow- 
ance is given for labor or expense laid out upon the metal 
subsequent to its rejection. Many times faulty metal results 
from the improper setting up of the drawing tools. Such metal 
is legitimate scrap produced by the manufacturer of the shells 
and for which the mill is in no way responsible. 

Each inspector of the discs at the rolling mills, (generally 
furnished by some recognized Inspection Bureau) has his own 
particular method of inspection and in many instances his 
views and those of the rolling mill superintendent will run in 
directly opposed channels and the resultant arguments are at 
times very warm. 

Particular attention must be paid to the cut or sheared 
edges of the discs and the slightest crack or flaw showing 
upon their edges is sufficient cause for their rejection. 

The surface of the discs should be carefully examined for 
blisters, spills, slivers, scabs, or small pieces of foreign sub- 
stances, such as iron scale from the annealing pans or dirt and 
grit which may have been rolled into the metal. Slight abra- 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

SHRAPNEL^ continued— page 2 

sions. such as dents, etc.. on the surface of the discs do not do 
any particular harm, as they are entirely eliminated during 
the subsequent drawing operations given the discs. The guage 
of the metal should be adhered to as closely as possible audit 
should never run under size, but that a disc is now and then 
slightly over guage, but otherwise perfect, need not cause its 
rejection. The average variation in weight is three pounds per 
thousand pounds of discs. A mill that can work within these 
limits should have the benefit of any doubt arising as to all 
slight variations in the gauge. 

The limitation placed upon the amount of impurities allowed 
in the mixture makes it necessary to use only the better 
grades of copper and zinc. The copper should analyze 99.98^ 
pure and the zinc should be practically free from lead or iron 
.12 hundredths of a percent of lead and 8 hundredths of a per 
cent of iron is the limit. In many instances, the brands of 
copper and zinc to be used in the mixture arc specified in the 
contract, as are also the proportions of each to be found, with- 
in certain limitations defined, in the castings by analysis. 

Practically all of the brands of zinc contain more or less lead 
in their composition as well as a slight proportion of iron. The 
analysis of the finished discs should not show more than 7 
hundredths of a per cent of lead, nor more than 4 hundredths 
of a per cent of iron. The variation allowed in the mixture 
for copper and zinc is generally about 2# either way from a 
given proportion of each. For instance, a mixture calling for 
68^ of copper and 32# of zinc may vary from 66# to 70# of 
copper and from 34# to 307° of zinc. 

So many things may happen during the melting of a copper 
-zinc alloy to alter its final composition that as liberal a varia- 
tion as is consistent with the work in hand should be allowed 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 3 

the mill making the metal. Borne inspectors insist upon taking 
their samples for analysis from the metal after it has been 
punched out into discs, but others are somewhat more liberal 
and allow the samples to be taken from the bars of metal 
before they are cut up. When the latter is the case and 

the metal be rejected, there is a chance for the mill to save 
the metal, by working it off into another order where the 
requirements are not quite so rigid. This point should be 
given serious consideration by the manufacturers, as a suit- 
able market can generally be found for all grades of metal, 
especially when it is rolled down to the lighter guages. 

A good proportion of scrap may be safely used in making 
metal for discs and as much as 60^ of scrap will be found 
to give satisfactory results. I have, on different occasions, 
made disc metal from all scrap without getting into trouble. 
but this is taking a long chance and I would not advise its 
being practiced except in case of necessity. However, as the 
discing process produces at least 50 °l c of scrap, it is easily seen 
how necessary it is to use up this scrap by remelting or dis- 
posing of it in some other manner. 

During the melting of the metal, a portion of the zinc is 
lost through oxidation and this loss must be taken into consid- 
eration when figuring out the mixture. The amount of zinc 
lost during the melting varies somewhat owing to local condi- 
tions which must be considered also. For instance- some 
furnaces will be found to carry a much higher degree of heat 
than others and this excessive heat will cause an extra loss of 
zinc; some furnaces run '"slow" and will not melt the metal 
fast enough which will likewise cause a loss of zinc. 

The greatest difficulty to overcome is the personal equation 
of the melting crew and, believe me, this is some proposition. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF A.LLOYS. 
SHRAPiYEL, continued pagt / 

First there is their unquenchable thirst, and the intensity 
lis thirst seems ; influence upon the quality 

of the metal cast. Then there is the utter inability of the 
ordin sters helper to comprehend the necessary require 

for the production of good metal. A good- caster's 
helper req both brains and muscle and men withmii 

may always be hath but those with both brains and muscle 
to apply to their work are rare.. This problem of procuring 
casters' helpers, with the necessary- intelligence, is'ind 
a pressing one. 

The mistake is often made of overworking the casting 
crew, especially in warm weather. The d ■ ■ I powers of 
endurance in different men must he kept in mind, tor a 
man who is continually overtaxing his physical powers 
cannot, naturally, do his best* work. It would te much 
ehe, the long run to increase the melting capacity 

of the i'oundr} and to apportion the work to correspond 
will) the staying powers of the different melting crews. The 
mistake is also made of allowing the - srs to weigh 

Suppose, a that a 

foundry has eight casters and sown 

al; and, in another foundry of the sam there is 

one man v\ ' lllfy if :- •'■ to weigh 

the chai . ce, on< - lllan is 

all th ■ weighing; in ' ;r instai 

; • responsibility is divided up among < . liflfereni i 
ai ' !;• hance of making an error greatly increased. 

Care must be nelting the metal to see thai 

proper amount of fuel is placed under the crucible to 
insure the tin 11 metal before the fire burns out. 

mount : around s of the 



THE WATER BURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 



SHRAPNEL, continued page 5 



crucible should be such that, by the time the metal has 
become melted, the fuel will have burnt itself out -thus 
allowing an easy adjustment of the pot-tongs on the cruci- 
ble preparatory to withdrawing the crucible from the fire. 
This may be regulated by allowing from 2 1-2 to 3 lbs of 
metal for each pound of coal. 

The quality of coal or coke used for melting has an impor- 
tant bearing on final results, and care must be taken to see 
that impurities, such as sulphur, are kept very low. A 72 hour 
Coimelsville coke gives good results as well as the following- 
grades of egg coal which are here given with their analysis: 
Dixon k Eddie Scranton C< >a l Beaver Meadow Coal 

})vy As W^r'd Dry As Rec'd 

4 50 Moisture 4.41 

6.49 6.29 Volatile Matter 5.85 5. 59 

6.97 5.80 Ash 6.30 6.02 

87.44 8:5.50 Fixed Carbon 87.85 83.58 

.35 .33 Sulphur .59 .57 

14.24 13.612 B. T.U. 14.032 13.481 

The hest results are obtained by melting the metal in the 
old style pit-melting furnace with a natural draft, using coal 
for fuel, although a forced draft may he used with good 
results providing that the fan or blower is placed somewhere' 
between the stack and the Hue proper; in other words, the 
draft should be so arranged that the outside air is sucked 
into the melting furnaces. It is wrong to try to melt brass 
which is to he used for rolling null purposes by forcing air 
underneath the melting chamber in order to create a high 
heat, both in oil or gas burning furnaces as well as those 
burning coal. Melting in this manner may he all right from 
a theoretical standpoint, hut. from a practical point of view. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL* continued page 6 

numerous difficulties present themselves, the most objection- 
able of which is in the form of the hot gases and excessive 
heal whichis driven up through the cracks in the top of the 
furnace and thus forced up into the faces of the furnace ten- 
ders who will not endure it. especially in the summer months, 
it is extremely difficult to keep men when they are com- 
pelled to undergo this additional hardship. 

A natural draft draws the cool air from outside into the 
furnace, whence it passes out through an openinginto the 
main line leading to the stack. In this manner the hot air. 
instead of being forced into the faces of the inciters, is drawn 
away from them. When using a natural draft, care must 
he taken to see that sufficient air is allowed to enter the 
bottom of ilie furnaces through the grate bars. This is a 
point which is often overlooked Insufficient air will cause 
a furnace to run "slow" and it his happened that a furnace 
has been condemned, when all ir needed was a little more 
air. The doors at the end of the pit should he open and the 
gratings over the ash pit should be made of slotted plates 
and not of solid material as is so often the case. 

When a blower is usri\ i () create a draft, care must be 
taken to place it far enough away from the main (hie so that 
the hot gases will have a chance to cool before they enter 
the blowers, otherwise the bearings will burn out. Asa rule. 
the gases should not register over 1000° Fahrenheit at the 
time they enter the blower. 

The metal should be kept covered with charcoal at all 
limes during the melting operation (one pound of charcoal 
per 100 pounds of metal is sufficient) and a handful of salt 
should be added a" the time the copper starts to melt and 
another just before the zinc is introduced into the mixture. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 

SHRAPNEL, continued— page 7 

If the inner walls of the crucible become coated with dross, 
it may be removed by the addition of two or three lumps of 
raw borax, about the size of a walnut, at the time the melt- 
ing starts to take place. If the borax is not handy, a small 
handful of fluor-spar will do as well. 

Care must be taken to see that the copper or heavy pieces 
of scrap are not packed into the crucible too tightly, for if 
this is done, it will be apt to split the crucible lengthwise 
owing to the expansion of the metal. The copper should 
also be placed in the crucible by means of tongs and not 
dropped by hand, as the shock is liable to break the crucible. 

The zinc should not be added until the metal has attained 
the proper temperature, which may be determined by allow- 
ing tl.e iron stirring rod to rest upon the bottom of the 
crucible, and noting the intensity of the vibrations of the 
molten metal as it is communicated through the rod to the 
hand. A little practice will help to determine this point. The 
proper pouring temperature may be found in the same way. 
[See 8D plOO Common Brass] 

To insure the mixture's being as near accurate as every- 
day practice will permit, every precaution must be taken 
during the melting operation. The metal should not be 
allowed to reach too high a temperature, nor should it be 
allowed to remain in the fire any longer than is absolutely 
necessary after its pouring temperature has been reached. 
Either of these errors will cause an excessive loss of zinc, 
due to oxidation. 

As the zinc in all brass mixtures oxidizes more or less 
during the melting operation, certain allowances must be 
made in weighing off the charges of metal to offset this 
loss. Thus, if an analysis is wanted to show a mixture of 68^ 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS 
SHRAPNEL, continued - page S 

copper and 32# zinc, it would be proper to charge into the 
crucible 67# of copper and 33$ of zinc or ()8 ,; of copper 

and .">:'>. -V' of zinc may be used to obtain the same result. 

The loss of zinc will vary under different conditions. 
sometimes more and .sometimes less than the above amount. 
but, as a rule, five percent added to the weight of the zinc 
will hold the mixture pretty close to the desired analysis, 
This liability of changed conditions should always be borne 
in mind and good judgment must always go hand in hand 
with any rule made for covering melting losses. 

In addition to the loss of zinc by oxidation, there will also 
be a loss of metal due to spilling while pouring and skim- 
ming, as well as from any accident that may happen to the 
crucible while it is in the tire. The losses from the above 
causes should be regulated as closely as possible and a great 
deal of the metal may be recovered by crushing the cinders 
and dirt from the casting shop, after which the metal may 
be reclaimed. I have at times kept the loss down as low as 
2# but it is not safe when figuring cost to allow less than 
3# for loss during the melting operation. 

When pouring the metal, the temperature must not be 
too high, for, if it is, the metal cannot be properly skimmed 
and the resulting castings will quite likely have dirty butt 
ends and show black patches of dross and fine charcoal upon 
their surface. The metal should be cooled down just enough 
so that, when the skimming bar is drawn across its surface, 
H very slight film or skin will form behind it. When this 
happens, it will be found that the surface of the metal may 
be skimmed perfectly clean, and if it is poured properly, a 
good casting will be obtained. A block of pine wood placed 
upon the surface of the molten metal while it is being poured 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 9 

will be found to work advantageously for it will protect the 
metal from the air and at the same time have a tendency to 
prevent any dirt or dross flowing into the mould. 

The face of the moulds must be kept smooth and clean and 
care should be taken to see that the scale is not allowed to 
accumulate on them in patches; otherwise, the surface of the 
cast bar will be rough and dirty. After the faces of the moulds 
have been scraped and broomed off, they must be given a 
good coating of oil having a flash test of 350° Fahrenheit or 
better. A good grade of lard oil gives excellent results as 
does fish oil also. But as both of these are somewhat expen- 
sive and at times difficult to obtain, many mills are using a 
good grade of cylinder oil as a dressing for their moulds. 
Personally, I have been using cylinder oil as a mould dressing 
for the past five years and outside of its scaling a little 
more than the lard or fish oil, I fail to see but that the results 
are just as satisfactory. 

Care must be taken to see that the casting surface of the 
mould is evenly coated with oil, for, if there are any spots 
left upon the mould which are not oiled, they will cause 
dirty spots to form on the casting and at the same time have 
a tendency to produce blow holes in the metal. 

The moulds must be well fitted and banded together tight- 
ly, with enough bands and wedges to prevent any leakage 
while the molten metal is being poured into them, for, 
whenever such a leakage occurs, a weak spot will be found 
in the casting and if a test piece should happen to be taken 
from this particular spot, it would be likely to show poor 
results for tensile strength, elastic limit, yield point, and 
elongation. 

The casting should be at least I in. wider than the 



THE WATERBURY HOOK OF ALLOYS 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page W 

diameter of the discs whiehare to be cut from it. This gives 

a much more even guageto each disc than would be the case 
were they cut from narrower bars. It' for any reason the 
moulds are not wide enough to make a casting of the re- 
quired width, this difficulty may be overcome by passing the 
bars cornerwise through the breaking-down rolls, and in 
this manner bring them to the proper width. 

The bars should not be casl less than P/sin. thick at their 
vd^XL^ and the center should be about l 5 /i6m. thick; or. in 
other words, the back and front covers of the moulds should 
be so rounded out that the center of each will be 3 /^ nl - 
deeper than its edge. Pourous castings are often caused by 
not having moulds properly designed. A mould should never 
be so designed that the resulting casting is flat or slightly 
dished, as such a casting will almost surely develope into 
pourous metal after it has been rolled. The cause of this is 
thai as the bars pass between the rolls, their outside edges 
gel the greater reduction and the center of the bars must 
necessarily be pulled or stretched along in order to keep up 
with their edge-. 

The size of a mould to hold a certain weight of metal may 
be figured out roughly as follows. Suppose a mould is wanted 
to hold a casting 6in. wide. I 1 8 in. thick on the edge, 1" iJn. 
thick in the center and the weight of the casting is to be 200 
lbs. First, find the weight of a piece of metal 1 in. in length 
and of th- 1 required dimensions, by multiplying, the length, 
1 in., by the width, (tin., by the thickness ot the center plusthe 
thickness of the r^l^r div. by 2, (1%H r , 6 = 2 7 ,',; : 2- l'/aa) 
by the decimal .32. This result equals 2.341bs. This is the 
weight ol* Lin. of br.ts< of the required width and thickness. 
The correct length of the casting is found by dividing the 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, coniimied— page 11 

given weight, 200, by this result 2.34, with 85.5 as the quo- 
tient. Therefore 85.5in. is to be the length of the casting. 
The decimal used .32 is the approximate weight of one cubic 
inch of brass. 200 _ r 

(lX6)(17 8 + l 5 / 16 -2) X .32 " 8o ;° 

When ordering moulds it is always best to have one sent 
first on trial, as this allows for any slight change being 
made in the pattern. 

After the bars of metal have been cast, they are removed 
from the moulds- and their rough edges smoothed off by filing. 
When this has been done, they are allowed to cool and are 
then taken to the alligator shears to have their gate-ends cut 
off. After the end of the bar has been cut off, the metal should 
be inspected, and, if it does not look clean and solid, another 
cut should be made and so on until solid metal appears. A re- 
sponsible man should be put in charge of this operation, as a 
great deal of trouble and unnecessary expense may be saved 
by having the metal properly inspected at the alligator shears. 
The bars of metal, after being inspected at the alligator 
shears, are taken to the breaking-down rolls to be given their 
first rolling operation. If the metal is to be made into discs, 
(122 in. in diameter and .380 in. thick, it should be rolled 
about as follows. A bar 7 in. wide and iy 8 ii]. thick on the 
edge should be reduced by its first pass through the rolls 
to 29 /32in. on the edge, and by its second pass to %.in. on 
the edge. 

The bars are next passed through a 5, 7, or 9 roll straight- 
ening machine and are then overhauled, after which they 
are again taken to the breaking- down rolls for re-rolling. 
The third pass through the rolls should reduce them to 5 / 8 in. 
on the edge and the fourth, to 17 /32.in. on the edge. 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— pa^c 12 

They are now taken to the annealing furnace which is 
kept at about 1200 or 1300° Fahrenheit and the metal is 
allowed to remain in the furnace until it has attained a good 
cherry heat throughout its whole mass. A test of the metal 
by the scleroscope should show a hardness of 14 or 15. 

After the bars have been annealed, they are drawn out 
of the muffle and allowed to cool or the cooling may be hast- 
ened by means of a water spray. The manner of cooling 
docs not appear to have any particular effect upon the 
ultimate quality of the discs. 

The bars are next placed in a Sulphuric Acid bath com- 
posed of from 8 to 10 parts of water and one part acid. This 
bath is generally used cold, but it may be heated by means 
of lead steam pipes if so desired. However, if the bath is 
working right, the metal will have a better appearance if 
the bath is cold. The length of time the metal will have to 
remain in the bath varies from 5 to 20 minutes, according to 
the condition of the pickle as well as to the control of the 
heat during the annealing operation. 

While the metal is in the annealing furnace, care should 
be" taken to regulate the flame so that the gases within the 
furnace will have a tendency to force themselves out against 
the doors. This prevents the oxygen in the air from entering 
the furnace as would be the case were the (lame SO regulated 
as to cause the outside air to suck into the furnace. The (lame 
should be shut of] as soon as the metal begins to show a uni- 
form red heat throughout its mass and the balance of the 
annealing should be accomplished by allowing the metal to 
gradually absorb the heat in the furnace. It is customary in 
many instances to force as many pounds of metal as possible 
through the annealing furnace within a given time. This is 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 13 

done to reduce the cost of annealing as much as possible, 
In making disc metal, however, this practice must not be 
followed, as the best results are obtained by bringing the 
metal up gradually to its proper annealing temperature. 

After the bars have been in the pickling solution for a 
sufficient length of time to remove the scale from the surface 
they are taken out and given a good rinsing in clean running 
water and at the same time are brushed over with a broom 
to further clean their surface. They may then be taken to 
the finishing rolls to receive their final rolling or they may 
be stood up on end and allowed to dry, providing the rolls 
are not ready for them. These bars should not be allowed to 
be piled upon one another wet and then allowed to dry 
for if this is done, the metal will tarnish and corrode. This 
corrosion will act rapidly upon the surface of the rolls, caus- 
ing them to "rough up." 

The man in charge of the pickling gang should give the 
surface of each bar careful inspection for any lumps or rises 
upon its surface for these are an indication of a fault in the 
casting known as blisters. Bars of this nature must be sent 
to the shears to be cut up for scrap. 

The finishing rolling is generally accomplished in two 
passes. The first pass through the rolls takes off about 2 / 3 of 
the extra thickness and the next pass takes off the remain- 
ing y 3 . After the bars have been given their first pass 
through the rolls, they are gauged out by means of a 
micrometer gauge to 1 / 2 of a thousandth of an inch, These 
bars are stacked in piles according to their different thick- 
nesses and then the rolls are set and the thinnest stack of 
bars is passed through the rolls first. Then the rolls are set 
a little closer together and the pile of bars next thickest is 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 14 

passed through. This operation is repeatedly carried out 
until al] the bars have been finished. As a rule the bars will 
vary more or less in thickness from one end to the other as 
they will also from the edirc to the center. The amount of 
this variation will depend upon certain conditions such as, 
even annealing, the condition of the surface pi the rolls, the 
amount of spring or elasticity in the rolling mill itself, as well 
as on the length and diameter of the rolls. When the discs 
finish about .380 in. thick, an allowance of a variation from 
.."ho to .385 should he made in the gauge. An allowance of 
less variation than this will not be found profitable to the 
mill rolling the metal. 

After the bars have been rolled to. their final thickness. 
they may be sent to the discing press to he blanked out into 
discs or they may he sent to the annealing furnace for their 
final annealing (which should show 15 on the Scleroscope). 
After this they are pickled in the Sulphuric Acid hath, dried 
out on the sawdust or with hot water, straightened, and then 
blanked out into discs. The bars which are blanked hard 
just as they le.ive the rolls make a disv which is almost per- 
fectly Hal. whereas those which are blanked from the soft 
metal are slightly dished in the center. There are argu- 
ments pro and con as to which of these is the best method 
of blanking the discs and there are many advocates of each 
method but there seems to lie no essential difference in the 
final results. 

In the punching the clearance between the die and the 
punch should be from .012 to . 015 in. and caremusl be taken at 
all time.- ;<> see that no metal adheres to the punch or the 
die for. irii (\o{^. it will force the punch to one side, causing 
either the die or the punch to nick on the edgeanda rough 



THE WATEBBLRY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 15 

burr to form on the discs. A good grade of lard oil makes a 
satisfactory lubricant for the discing operation. The press 
should cut from 24 to 30 discs per minute and a good punch 
and die will average 25,000 discs without being changed. The 
temper of the punch and die should be such that a file will 
just touch it, If it is too hard, the edges will nick and if too 
soft, the edges will burr over. Colonial tool steel makes a 
very satisfactory punch and die, and a Xo. 58 Toledo press 
will be found very reli ible for the discing operation. 

The size of the breaking down rolls differs somewhat in 
the various mills but a pair of rolls having a face from 20 to 
30 in. in length and a diameter of from 18 to 22 in., with 
necks from 16 to 18 in. diameter and having a working speed 
of 18 revolutions per minute will be found to work satisfae 
torily. In order to obtain the best results from a mill of this 
description, from 250 to 300 horse power should be available. 

It is customary in most of the mills to draw the bars of 
metal up to the breaking-down rolls on a wagon and then 
pass them through the rolls while men at the other side of 
the rolls catch them and place them on a wagon. This wagon 
is then drawn around to the front of the rolls and the oper- 
ation is repeated until the bars are ready to be annealed. 
This method is improved upon by one mill which uses two 
sets of rolls to do its breaking down. These rolls are set side by 
side and the center of one pair is about a foot lower than the 
center of the other. The rolls travel is opposite directions. 
The bars of metal are passed through the first set of rolls onto 
an inclined table from which one man enters them into the 
second set of rolls. From these they are taken and piled upon 
a wagon. This mill has a great capacity for work. Another 
way is to pass the bars through the breaking down rolls and 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued- page 16 

pile them on a wagon, after which the rolls are reversed and 

bars are passed through and re-piled upon the first 

wagon. This makes a convenient way of handling the bars 

and is much quicker and easier than drawing the bars of 

metal around the rolls on a wagon. Another mill uses iron 
racks in the place of wagons and the metal is moved around 
by means of an electric traveling crane. This method takes 
up less floor space than the others and the bars can be moved 
verv quickly. 

The finishing rolls are of the same dimensions as the 
breaking-down rolls, but their speed should be from 30 to 
86 revolutions per minute. It will take two pair offinishing 
rolls to handle the metal from one pair of breaking-down 
rolls. All of the rolls should he equipped with upright 
guides for guiding the bars into the rolls, and with a receiv- 
ing plate at the hack of the rolls for the bars of metal to 
runoul on. Tare must he taken to specify these extras when 
ordering the rollingmill, for they are not as a rule furnished 

with the mill. 

Hie surface of the rolls will roughen up every now and 
then because of their wear hv the metal as it passes through 
them and also from the action on the iron of traces of Sul- 
phuric Acid which remains on the bars after they come from 
the acid tubs. The rolls must be kept smooth and of an even 
surface or it will he impossible to do satisfactory work on 
them. To do this, a good hard maple stick about 2 1 dm wide 
and 3 in. thick IS sawed out on the end so that, when the rolls 

are aboul ' dm npart.it will lit them snugly but not too 

tight. Lard oil andNo.80emery mixed into a thin paste are 

daubed niton the surface of the two rolls. The maple stick 

ow worked hack and forth across thesurface of the rolls 



THE WA_ 5URY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page J7 

until their surface has been smoothed and evened up. 

It is quite a trick to grind a pair of rolls properly and un- 
less care is taken, their surface will become covered with 
fine ridges which it will be almost impossible to remove. If 
one is not familiar with the method of grinding rolls, the best 
way is to fit the maple stick loosely between the rolls and 
then weave it back and forth, at the same time pushing it 
evenly across their surface from end to end, gradually tight- 
ening down the screws and taking care to keep the rolls even. 
As the stick begins to tighten between the rolls, the high and 
low spots on the surfaces of the rolls may be distinguished 
by the degree of ease with which the stick moves across these 
surfaces. By hurrying over the low spots and tarrying a 
little on the high ones a fair job may be done. When you 
think that the rolls have been ground enough, move the 
stick across them evenly a few times and then take it out at 
one end of the rolls by turning the screw. Wipe the emery 
and oil all off the rolls and clean them thoroughly: then shut 
them close together and put some oil on their surfaces and 
the high and low spots may be distinguised by the manner 
in which the oil shows on their surface. By using a little care 
and observation it will not be long before the results of the 
grinding may be pre-determined. One of the secrets of good 
rolling is to grind the rolls whenever necessary in order to 
keep them in proper condition. 

After the metal has been blanked out into discs, each disc 
must be carefully inspected for any flaws which may be upon 
its surface or within the body of the metal. The surface should 
be inspected for spills, blisters, scabs, or slivers as these will 
all cause a defect in the finished shell. The edges of the 
disc must be inspected for split metal or cracks and the least 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continual- page 18 

sigu of a split or crack is sufficient cause for the disc to be re- 
jected. A very fine crack on the edge of the disc may not 
appear to be a very serious fault, but if the disc be split a- 
long the line of flaw on apair of shears, the chances are that 
the flaw will show more pronounced. Of all complaints re- 
ceived from manufacturers of shells, those resulting from 
discs having split ^\\^* have proved the most serious. A 
small indentation upon the surface of the disc which may be 
classified as a bruise does not apparently affect the quality 
of the metal, as these indentations are all removed during 
the process of drawing the shells. The percentage of reject- 
ions from the careful inspection to which the discs are sub- 
jected is quite a serious item to the manufacturer of the 
metal and the temptation to pass a disc having only a slight 
Haw is great. However, it will be found much cheaper in 
the end to scrap metal of this nature rather than have it go 
out and later he condemned by the manufacturer of the 
shells. o<)' ; ot sera]) from the casting shop to the shipped 
discs may he considered a good average, and in many in- 
stances, it will be found to run higher than this. 

The following figures are taken from actual tests made 
by the inspectors of one of the large munition manufacturers. 
These tests taken at random represent shipments of over 
500,000 discs. The size of the discs was: 6.22 in. in diameter, 
.380in. thick. The average analysis was: 68 ,: copper, 32^ 
/inc. .!).V ; lead, and .029 iron. The scleroscope used was 
manufactured by the Shore Instrument Co.. and the physical 

tots were made by the Eenry Souther Engineering Co.. 

. < < 

of Bartford, Conn. The scleroscope records the temper 
or hardness of the metal after its final annealing. 



THE WATEKBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 19 



Scleroscope 


Tensile Strength 


Elastic Limit 


°f° Elongation 


Reading 


per sq. in. 


per sq. in. 


in 2 in. 


13 


44,400 lbs 


12,439 lbs 


81.5 


13 


46,850 


15,200 


82. 


13 


44,560 


12,940 


83. 


13 


44,000 


14,025 


85. 


13 


44,775 


14,455 


85. 


13 


44,840 


14,630 


84. 


13 


43,470 


14,170 


88. 


Average 


44,699 


1 3,980 


84.1 



13 is a low temper and if the metal were to be kept in 
the annealing furnace at this heat, it would start to melt. 
Also, the structure of the metal under the microscope would 
show a granular appearance. Some manufacturers specify 
13 hardness for their discs, thinking that the softer the metal 
the easier it will form up in their presses. This may true as 
far as the actual drawing up of the metal is concerned, but 
a stronger and better shell can be made by annealing at a 
lower temperature. 



Scleroscope 


Tensile Strength 


Elastic Limit 


% Elongation 


Reading 


per sq. in. 


per sq. in. 


in 2 in. 


13.5 


43,950 lbs. 


13,320 lbs. 


80.0 


13.5 


43,730 


13,310 


83.5 


13.5 


45,965 


14,910 


80.5 


13.5 


43,780 


14,710 


86.0 


13.5 


46,560 


14,625 


78.0 


13.5 


44,800 


14,460 


82.5 


13.5 


45,080 


14,160 


77.0 


13.5 


45,560 


13,350 


81.5 


13.5 


45,330 


1 2,940 


82.0 


Average 


44,973 


13,976 


81.2 


Desirable 


45,250 


14,441 


82.0 



This temper is also lower than good practice permits. 



THE WAT KH WHY HOOK OF ALLOYS. 



SHRAPNEL, continued— page 20 



5cleroscope 


Tensile Strength 


Elastic Limit 


' ' Elongation 


Reading 


per sq. in. 


per sq. in. 


in 2 in. 


14.0 


46,300 lbs. 


15,380 lbs. 


79.5 


14.0 


45,300 


15,380 


79.0 


14.0 


43,940 


14,340 


81.5 


14.0 


43,280 


14,015 


82.0 


14.0 


44,500 


13,300 


82.0 


14.0 


44,610 


13,342 


83.0 


14.0 


45,720 


13,280 


78.0 


14.0 


45,800 


14,000 


79.5 


14.0 


44,445 


14,390 


82.0 


14.0 


46,315 


14,870 


81.5 


Average 


45,021 


14,229 


80.8 


Desirable 


45,837 


14,917 


80.0 


This temper 


is as low as s 


hould be permitted. 




14.5 


47,140 


14,810 


81.0 


14.5 


45,050 


13,920 


80.0 


14.5 


46,125 


12,170 


77.5 


14.5 


44,800 


13,865 


79.0 


14.5 


45.875 


13,070 


76.0 


14.5 


45,450 


16,145 


78.0 


14.5 


45,170 


14,990 


77.5 


14.5 


44,260 


17,370 


78.0 


14.5 


46,460 


1 3,800 


73.5 


14.5 


46,480 


16,300 


80.0 


A verage 


45,681 


14,644 


78.1 


Desirable 


46,443 


15,409 


78.0 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 



SHRAPNEL, continued— page 21 



Scleroscope 


Tensile Strength 


Elastic Limit 


f / f Elongation 


Reading 


per sq. in. 


per sq. in. 


in2 in. 


15.0 


47,390 


15,110 


80.0 


15.0 


46,990 


15,480 


77.5 


15.0 


48,625 


14,715 


77.0 


15.0 


47,430 


14,155 


75.5 


15.0 


46,115 


13,340 


76.0 


15.0 


47,415 


15,710 


76.0 


15.0 


46,680 


1 7,490 


75.5 


15.0 


46,960 


16,260 


76.0 


15.0 


48,150 


15,380 


72.5 


15.0 


47,870 


14,700 


75.0 


Average 


47,362 


15,234 


76.1 


Desirable 


47,035 


15,917 


76.0 


15.5 


46,890 


21,000 


75.5 


15.5 


47,120 


14,610 


75.5 


15.5 


48,610 


16,960 


74.5 


15.5 


48,150 


20,685 


73.5 


15.5 


47,790 


14,830 


76.0 


15.5 


47,650 


18,180 


77.0 


15.5 


47,700 


16,930 


72.5 


15.5 


47,950 


14,320 


75.0 


15.5 


46,410 


14,550 


75.5 


15.5 


48,940 


16,010 


71.5 


Average 


47,721 


16,807 


74.6 


Desirable 


47,647 


16,442 


74.0 


16.0 


48,025 


15,260 


69.5 


16.0 


48,560 


18,670 


70.0 


Average 


48,292 


16,965 


69.7 


Desirable 


48,266 


16,984 


72.0 



Discs of the above tests all passed inspection as to chem- 
ical and physical requirements. From my own personal ex- 
perience and observations. I prefer metal having a temper 



THE WATERBUR? BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued jtage 22 

ofnojt less than 14.5. Yet it is always true that the harder 
the temper, the stronger must be the press j or forming up 
the discs. 

Too much reliance can not be placed upon the scleroscope 
test, as there are so many things outside the actual annealing 
temperature of the metal which influences its hardness. For 
instance, all other conditions being equal, a verysmall trace 
of iron, tin, or nickel will increase the hardness while lead will 
have a tendency to make it somewhat softer. Also the vary- 
ing conditions in the casting shop such as draft, method of 
mixture, temperature of pouring, etc. have a decided influ- 
ence' upon the hardness of the metal. These conditions 
partly account for the Variations in hardness found in dif- 
ferent pieces of metal, having the same chemical composition. 
There 1 is a great deal to contend with in the manufacture of 
non-ferros alloys and as great an allowance as is permissible 
with the work in hand should he whenever possible. 

hi order to obtain a correct reading when using the scler- 
oscope. it is necessary to have the test piece of metal lie 
perfectly flat between the anvil and the striking hammer. 
If this is not done, the slight spring in the test piece will 
not give a correct reading. 

In tin 1 foregoing, 1 have figured on a casting shop having 
48 old style coal-burning pit furnaces suitable for holding 
a No. TO crucible. These crucibles will each hold about 210 
pounds of molten metal. Allowing 10 pounds of metal per 
crucible fa- gates, etc., each crucible should turn out 200 
pounds of bars. By running these furnaces each 8 heats 
per day. 76,800 pounds of castings will be obtained. As the 
long casl l»ai> are generally (ait into two pieces before being 
rolled, this will make 768 bars of metal to be rolled on the 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 23 

breaking-down roll, and, as each bar is passed through the 
rolls 4 times, this will make 3,072 bars of metal to be hand- 
led per clay of 10 hours. The two pair of finishing rolls will 
be able to take care of a little more metal than the breaking 
down rolls can supply and this gives a chance to help out 
the breaking-down rolls, should they get a little behind in 
their work. 
Some of the results to be ordinarily expected are as follows: 
About 5^° of the weight of the bars is removed during the 
overhauling operation. Each bar of metal will make about 15 
discs so that a total of 12,000 discs per 10 hours will result. — 
The discing press, working under favorable conditions, will 
cut 1,200 discs per hour. 

Following is a memorandum intended to show the equip- 
ment and material necessary to turn out 12,000 discs per day 
of 10 hours :- 
48 Coal-burning pit melting furnaces 
12 Pair of crucible tongs suitable for No. 70 crucibles 
1 6 Pair of long handle speltering tongs 
16 Iron (1% in.) stirring bars 
96 Solid bottom extra heavy iron coal pails 
Complete set of moulds, bands, and wedges of suitable 
size for the work in hand 
1 2 Pair of short handle tongs for banding the moulds 
1 2 Short handle 8 pound lead hammers 
1 6 Skimming bars 

4 Pair of heavy tongs for lifting moulds 
8 No. 7 Coal shovels 
8 Wheel barrows, 300 pounds capacity 
4 Overhead traveling cranes for lifting crucibles from the 
furnaces 



THE WATERBURY BOOK OF ALLOYS. 
SHRAPNEL, continued— page 24 

8 Iron wagons for taking the bars of metal away from 
the casters 

1 Ash reclaiming plant for recovering metal from the ashes 
Forge, anvil, and necessary tools for heavy blacksmith work 

I Cabbaging machine for bundling scrap 

I Alligator shear (1 6 in. blades) for cutting gates, etc. 

4 Pair of scales. 300 pounds capacity, for casters' use 

1 Pair of heavy copper scales for weighing bars, etc., 
• r )000 pounds capacity 

Suitable bins for holding scrap 

1 Annealing furnace having a chamber 30 ft. long and 
8 ft. wide, burning oil. gas or wood 

I Pan pulling machine 

I Pair 20 in. Breaking-down rolls 250 H. P. 

1 5 Roll straightening machines and 2 grindstones 

2 Pair 20 in. Finishing rolls 300 H. P. 
12 Overhauling machines 

3 16 ft. acid tubs with same size water tubs 
2 Sawdust boxes,- 12ft. x 3 ft. 

1 9 roll straightening machine 

1 Discing press with suitable dies and punches 

I Scrap cutting shears 

Equipment for making shipping-boxes, etc. 

1 Pair shipping scales 3,500 pounds capacity 

4 Inspecting tables 48 Iron mill trucks 

43 Annealing pans 6 Long pan pulling hooks 

Machine shop equipment Testing machine 

Chemical Laboratory Blacksmith shop 

Office equipment ft r, 26.8 ToiKit :m<1 wash room 
Storehouse for supplies, etc! 
Steam & hot water supply for cleaning and drying purposes 



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